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TRANSIT DEPARTMENT

FOOD,
FAMINE AND RELIEF

1940-1946

LEAGUE OF NATIONS, GENEVA
1946

OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Ciall No./^ 9 . /t ") / / ;^ -1 ,* Accession No,
Author

uld l>e retutned on or before the date last marked below.

Series of League of Nations Publications

IT. ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL
1946.II.A.5

Printed in the United States of America

by American Book-Stratford Press, Inc., New York, N. Y.

8/46-^,500

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE iv

I. INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY 1

1. Food Rationing Systems During the* Second
World War 1

2. Food Consumption Levels During the War 4

3. The Post- War Food Crisis 5

4. Relief Activities 6

5. Public Health 7

II. FOOD RATIONING AND CONSUMPTION DURING THE

WAR 8

1 . Germany, German-dominated Europe, Finland and
Italy 1'6

A. Countries in which Rationing was Total 16

B. Countries in which Rationing was Partial 52

C. Summary of Conclusions 53

2. The U.S.S.R. 55

3. The United Kingdom and the European Neutrals 57

4. Rest of the World 64

III. THE POST- WAR FOOD CRISIS 72

IV. LEVELS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION, 1945/1946 82
V. POST-WAR RELIEF 91

VI. MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY 102

1. Morbidity 104

2. Mortality 109

3. Summary 118

APPENDIX. LEGAL FOOD RATIONS IN THE PERIOD 1939-1945

(30 countries) 120

PREFACE

THIS study is the third in a series devoted to analysis of
world food conditions under the impact of the war. It
goes to' the press at a moment when, to quote from Mr.
Herbert Hoover's address in Chicago on May 17th, "hun-
ger hangs over the homes of more than 800,000,000 peo
pie over one-third of the people of the earth/'

The study examines in retrospect the evolution of food
rationing during the war period as a whole, a review which
leads up to an analysis of the present food crisis. It evalu-
ates food consumption levels throughout the world for
the current crop-year, surveys the post-war relief situation
and reviews public health developments in their relation to
rationing and consumption.

The two preceding publications in this series are en-
titled "Wartime Rationing and Consumption" (published
in June 1942) and "Food Rationing and Supply 1943/44"
(published in March 1944). Consumption and rationing
have also been dealt with in chapters appearing under that
heading in the various issues of the "World Economic
Survey" published during the war.

The present study is the work of Mr. John Lindberg,
main author also of the preceding volumes in the series.

A. ROSENBORG

Head of the League of Nations Mission
in the United States

Princeton, New Jersey
May 1946

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY

THE principal facts and conclusions to be found in the present study
are briefly summarized in this introductory chapter. The summary
follows in the main the line of presentation adopted in the body of
the text.

1. FOOD RATIONING SYSTEMS DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Food rationing was introduced in most countries of Europe
as an early wartime measure before specific scarcities had had time
to develop. It was designed to

a) vSecure equitable distribution of available supplies of essen-
tial foods to all, regardless of income;

b) prevent waste of essential materials, foreign exchange,
shipping space and manpower;

c) supplement and reinforce such measures of price-and-
production controls as were deemed necessary for managing the
war economy.

2. Without effective co-ordination between the various phases of
the social and economic policy, and more particularly betv/een ration-
ing, procurement of supplies, and price-control, food rationing can-
not work smoothly! In comparison with the last war, governments
were on the whole remarkably successful in managing rationing.
Under the influence of differences in the general economic situation
there developed two distinct types of rationing systems, the German
and the Anglo-American.

German-Type Rationing

3. The German system represents a development and refinement
of rationing as applied during the first world war. This system was
adopted, with some modifications, all over the Continent of Europe,

[2]

Its construction was essentially determined by a supply situation
that was more stringent than in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Imports
to the Continent, normally representing about W% of its food
supplies before the war, were entirely cut off, whilst domestic crop
production contracted to approximately 80% of normal by the end
of the war. The problem facing the Continent was that of maintain-
ing human food consumption in a manner satisfying nutritional re-
quirements so far as possible, in spite of the drastic reduction in
total food supply. The solution of this problem was sought essen-
tially in reduction of livestock numbers (chiefly pigs and poultry)
and transfer to direct human consumption of the feed crops so re-
leased. This policy obviously resulted in a lowering of the animal-
vegetable ratio i.e., in raising the proportion of vegetable calorics
in the human diet.

4. With regard to the nutritive value of the diet, it is important,
however, not to reduce the proportion of animal calories more than
is absolutely necessary : milk in particular is essential to the healthy
development of children. Hence, economy is required in the dis-
tribution not only of animal, but also of vegetable foods. Under the
German system all important single foodstuffs or groups of kindred
foodstuffs, were specifically rationed at so much per person per
week or per month. Rationing determined both the quantity and the
quality of diets, for the free foods (game, certain vegetables, fruit,
etc.) were either too expensive or too low in specific calorie content
to affect the total food intake in any significant degree.

5. But physiological needs for food vary with sex, age, occupa-
tion, etc. ; therefore, in order to avoid inequalities in terms of need,
rationing had to be made differential. Consumers were divided into
broad categories in which each received rations in proportion to alleged
needs. For practical administrative reasons, however, the categories
had to be limited in number, and whilst differentiation mitigated the
inequalities (in terms of need) inherent in any system of specific
rationing, it did not eradicate them. The system remained cumber-
some, inelastic and altogether devoid at least in theory of a free
consumer's choice.

6. Rationing to be successful requires a highly efficient adminis-
trative apparatus and also the support of public opinion. Where these
fundamentals are missing especially as regards the procurement of
food from the farmers an ever increasing proportion of total food
supplies finds its way into the black markets. The lower the official
rations become, the greater becomes the incentive to use and supply

[3]

these markets, and the more readily does public opinion condone
their use. Once rations fall below what is required to maintain a
reasonably adequate diet, black markets are bound to expand.

7. The efficiency of rationing anywhere in Europe was almost
directly proportionate to the calorie level that the rations afforded.
The higher the rations, the less important was the black market, and
vice versa. Rationing proved efficient on the whole throughout the
war in Germany, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Sweden and Switzer-
land, and most of the time also in the Netherlands; it was less
successful in Belgium, France and Norway. In southern and eastern
Europe it ultimately broke down altogether. But the more defective
the rationing system, the less indicative of actual consumption are
the legal rations. Only under conditions of extreme scarcity (as in
Greece in 1943) have black-market supplies dried up.

Rationing of the Anglo-American Type

8. In the United Kingdom, whose access to oversea supplies,
though seriously threatened, was never sealed off during the war,
rationing was introduced chiefly in order to husband scarce shipping
space and foreign exchange. Domestic output was directed towards
production of bulky or perishable foods (wheat, vegetables and
milk), whilst food imports were primarily directed towards provid-
ing for concentrated animal products (fats, meat and dairy prod-
ucts). During no period of the war, however, was there an absolute
limitation of the supply of total calories. Consumption of bread
and most vegetables remained free serving as "budget regulators"
permitting all consumers to purchase as many calories as they re-
quired and rationing was designed to distribute equitably scarce
foods (animal products, sugar and fats). It was so constructed as to
supply average needs of all the main nutritive elements. There was
no need for a differential calorie rationing on the continental pat-
tern; basic rations were on an equal per caput basis.

9. Special needs of various groups of consumers for quality foods
were met by special distribution schemes, superimposed, as it were,
on the basic rationing system. Among these were special rations of
milk and other protective foods for children, nursing and expectant
mothers ; communal feeding, industrial canteens and "British
Restaurants." In addition, desirable but not essential additions to the
rations were supplied by the "point-rationing" system, which per-
mitted a rather wide consumer's choice between different commod-

[4]

ities. In all, therefore, the British system remained throughout the
war more elastic than the German system and better adjusted to indi-
vidual needs.

10. The supply situation in the Americas and the British Com-
monwealth outside the United Kingdom remained less strained than
in Great Britain. Rationing could on the whole be limited to animal
foodstuffs, so as to prevent an uneconomic expansion of animal pro-
duction while providing for a sufficient margin of such foods for
export, lend-lease and military needs. In the United States the Brit-
ish "point system" was further developed, the main foods fats and
meat on the one hand and canned goods on the other being rationed
on a separate point basis. Little restriction of a free consumer's
choice was involved.

Food Distribution Measures in the East

11. In the undeveloped economies of Africa and Asia it was not
generally possible to ration foods on the western patterns. When
food regulations proved inevitable they generally assumed the form
of allocations of staple foods, mainly cereals, to entire villages, com-
munities or tribes. Individual rationing of cereals in urban centres
was introduced in some areas, however, notably in India, Palestine
and North Africa.

2. FOOD CONSUMPTION LEVELS DURING THE WAR

12. A food consumption that was adequate in calories and quali-
tatively as satisfactory on the whole as before the war was main-
tained in the Americas, the British Dominions, the United King-
dom, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden and Switzerland. In Bulgaria,
Roumania and Hungary the pre-war intake of food, which though
probably adequate in calories, was of lower nutritional quality than
in the countries just mentioned, seems to have been approximately
maintained during most of the war period. Such critical shortages as
arose locally in the rest of Europe were confined in the main to
urban areas and affected especially those population groups in the
towns too poor to frequent the black markets. Farmers as a class
were little affected by food rationing and were apparently able to
maintain pre-war consumption levels except in areas directly ex-
posed to warfare.

13. In Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
the calorie levels of urban consumption were slightly lower on the

[5]

whole than before the war, though not much short of 3000 calories
daily per consumption unit. In Belgium, Finland, the Netherlands
and Norway, rations varied between approximately 2300-2800
calories per consumption unit a day ; rations per caput or per "normal
consumer," of course, were lower. These figures, although in some
cases as much as 20% lower than before the war, do not indicate a
truly critical deficiency of calories ; but at times local shortages may
have been more severe. Levels of roughly 1500-2300 calories per
consumption unit were found in the Baltic States, Slovakia, France
and Italy, although it is necessary to take into account substantial
additions from the black market, particularly in France and Italy.
Where such additions were not forthcoming we find pockets of food
intake too low to permit of full working capacity and health. In
Poland, Greece, parts of Yugoslavia and Albania distribution was
irregular and consumption fell for shorter or longer periods to levels
of semi-starvation or outright famine.

14. Throughout Europe the proportion of food of animal origin,
particularly of meat and eggs, was decreased, though milk consump-
tion was relatively well maintained. Fats were generally scarce,
whilst consumption of vegetables mostly increased, both relatively
and absolutely. On the whole the nutritional composition of the diet,
especially as regards vitamins and minerals, was not much worse
than before the war; indeed, in some cases it even improved. Abso-
lute deficiencies of particular nutritive elements arose as the caloric
intake decreased below safe levels. Insufficiency of calories became
synonymous with malnutrition as well.

15. Calorie rations in the U.S.S.R. appear to have been nearly as
high as in Germany (about 1800 calories per head per day), but the
diet included almost no milk, milk products, fats or eggs, and only a
little meat. Serious local, temporary shortages arose in the low-
consumption areas in the Far East. Parts of India suffered a famine
in 1943; famine has also visited various parts of China. In Japan,
where rations were lowered during the course of the war period, a
serious food situation developed at the end of the Pacific war.

3. THE POST-WAR FOOD CRISIS

16. The food situation worsened markedly over wide areas to-
wards the end of the war and subsequently continued to deteriorate
at an accelerated pace until, in the spring of 1946, famine conditions
prevailed in parts of Europe and the Far East. The intensity of the

[6]

present crisis is due in part to adverse natural factors such as
droughts, and to the upheavals of the closing phases of battle, but
fundamentally it reflects the dangerous unbalance that has developed
in the world's agriculture.

17. During the war world food production per head according
to the most authoritative estimates available declined by about
12%, a much heavier decrease in Continental Europe and the Far
East being but partially offset by a substantial increase in North
America, as well as in the British Isles. In the circumstances it would
have been necessary, in order to maintain the calorie consumption
of the world's population at a reasonably adequate level, to increase
the supply of cereals for human consumption by reducing livestock
numbers, not only in Europe (where a substantial reduction to that
effect was in fact brought about during the war), but also in the
other parts of the world, particularly the countries producing a
surplus of cereals, where such reduction can be readily effected.
Most of these countries, however, increased the feeding of cereals
to their livestock population, in some cases substantially increasing
their number during the war. Moreover, on the termination of the
fighting in Europe, these countries generally liberalized or abolished
rationing. In consequence it proved impossible for important food-
exporting countries to meet more than a part of the import require-
ments of deficit areas.

18. In spite of belated efforts to meet these requirements, it is, at
the moment of writing, clear that famine cannot altogether be
averted. The Emergency Committee for Europe has estimated that
approximately 100 million people in Europe will receive less than
1500 calories a day, and of these many, particularly in Germany,
Austria and Hungary, are already receiving 1000 or less. In India
the cereal crop is short by about 8 million tons, and a large part of
the city population is existing on rations of 1000 calories a day or
less. With recent allocations of wheat it is possible that further
widespread deterioration will be avoided. In China acute local fam-
ines are reported, but transport obstacles make adequate relief ex-
tremely difficult. In Japan as well famine conditions will develop
unless large imports materialize.

4. RELIEF ACTIVITIES

19. International food relief to the liberated areas has been se-
verely hit by the food crisis. UNRRA began large-scale activities in

[7]

April 1945, and had by the end of February 1946 shipped 3.8 million
tons of food to twelve nations. Greece had received 1.3 million tons
of this total, seven east-European countries together 1.8 million tons,
and all others 0.7 million tons. Food relief after the first world war,
when the needs were smaller, amounted to 6.2 million tons, of which
not less than 4.8 million were shipped during the period January
to August 1919. At the moment of writing actual deliveries continue
to fall short of scheduled operations.

5. PUBLIC HEALTH

20. The health situation in the Americas, the British Common-
wealth of Nations, Sweden, Switzerland and Denmark continued on
the whole to improve, despite the war. In the Netherlands, Norway
and Czechoslovakia and, during part of the period, Finland, serious
deterioration was averted. In Germany, France and Italy the situa-
tion was more unfavourable, and decided increases in mortality are
to be noted. Conditions in Bulgaria, Hungary and Roumania did not
seem to have deteriorated in any decisive manner, but such informa-
tion as is available for Poland, Yugoslavia and Greece shows a grave
impairment of health and increased mortality. The conclusion of
hostilities appears to have been followed by a certain improvement
in western Europe and by a drastic retrogression in Germany, Italy,
Austria, Hungary, Roumania and Japan.

21. The world health situation as a whole except for the special
areas mentioned above has remained better than could a priori have
been expected. This is due largely to the absence, so far, of serious
epidemics of the type occurring after the first world war, but also, no
doubt, to the relative success of the food distribution schemes de-
scribed above. It should be emphasized, however, that the full effects
of malnutrition, starvation and privations take a relatively long time
to make themselves felt. A complete evaluation of the war's impact
on health has, therefore, to await more ample information than is as
vet available.

CHAPTER II

FOOD RATIONING AND CONSUMPTION
DURING THE WAR

THE purpose of this chapter is to describe in general outline food
consumption during the war. However, in the absence in most cases
of direct statistics of total food consumption, it is necessary to rely
largely upon official data on individual food rations. During the
latter part of the war and the first months of liberation in Europe,
organized food distribution frequently broke down; therefore it has
been found necessary to deal separately with the war period proper
and the transitional period from war to peace.

The statistical material pertaining to rationing is reproduced by
countries in Appendix I. In most cases the material is supplied di-
rectly by governments or taken from official sources. In a few cases
it has been necessary to have recourse to non-official sources of vary-
ing value. Every effort has been made to present the rationing data
in as comparable a form as possible. Foodstuffs have been arranged
in eleven groups constructed generally on the basis of nutritional
affinity, though rationing regulations are such as to have necessi-
tated in some cases the combining of foods which are not always
homogeneous. The data are given in grammes per week ; actual ra-
tioning periods vary in length the most common period being the
week or month. Unless otherwise stated the month is supposed to
correspond to 4.3 weeks; in some cases, however, the length of the
rationing period has varied irregularly and it is possible that certain
changes of this nature have been overlooked. Flour is expressed in
terms of bread. An attempt has been made to include for each coun-
try as many consumer categories as possible. These are self-explana-
tory with the exception of the ''normal consumer," which differs not
only from country to country but also among different food items.
It is assumed that "normal consumer" includes all consumers unless
otherwise stated. Figures are given for each quarter; in general they
relate to the middle of the period, but in some cases they are aver-

[9]

ages. In a few cases approximate data have had to he used.

Although every effort has been made to check the figures used,
they are largely provisional in nature and hence subject to ultimate
correction. Only when adequate national studies have appeared can
the final history of food rationing and consumption during the war
be written. 1 Meanwhile, this survey supplies a first outline of con-
sumption developments.

The rationing tables should be used with circumspection. Data re-
late to legal rations. These may or may not have been actually availa-
ble in the shops. In a broad way rationing coupons seem to have
been honoured in North America, Great Britain, the British Domin-
ions, Sweden, Switzerland and Denmark. The same seems to hold
true, with only minor exceptions, for Germany up to the early
spring of 1945. In the former German-dominated areas irregularities
were the rule. In particular, rations of animal foods were often not
available in full. But the smaller or the less obtainable the legal
rations, the more the black markets tend to grow in importance ; for
as foods become scarce, the incentive both to supply them and to
use them increases, while the deterrent effects of punishment and the
disapproval of the public become weaker. It is difficult to give any
precise quantitative measure of the provisions being supplied through
the black markets. In some countries and for some commodities the
black-market proportion is believed to have been as high as a third
of the total supplies. Having regard to all factors, one is perhaps
justified in assuming that actual consumption tended to be higher
rather than lower than the level indicated by legal rations.

It should be remembered also that rationing in fact applied to
urban populations. Farmers cannot for good reasons be strictly ra-
tioned, and in spite of requisitioning of agricultural products, the
allotments of quota to be delivered, special inducement payments,
prohibition of home slaughter and the like, the farmers were able to
maintain their consumption very much at its normal level. This ex-
plains why rations for the urban groups are smaller than an alloca-
tion of total supplies per caput of population would indicate. The
greatest reduction fell naturally on the industrial workers, too poor
to patronize the high-cost black markets.

During the course of the war the quality of food deteriorated. The

1 As a pattern for future studies of this kind one should mention the studies
by the Special Joint Committee of the Combined Food Board (quoted below) on
"Food Consumption Levels in the United States, Canada and the United King-
dom."

[10]

milling percentage of grain was increased from an average of little
more than 70% to 85/90% or even more. Admixtures of potatoes,
barley and so on were added to bread. The fat content of meat, milk
and cheese was decreased. While whole wheat bread is nutritionally
preferable to white bread, most other changes tended to decrease
both the calorie content and the quality of foods. It is not possible
to take such changes into account in this study; a loaf of bread ap-
pears throughout as a loaf of bread, and a pound of meat as a
pound of meat.

In undertaking studies of food consumption, it is not the size of
particular rations that primarily interests us. We need to compute
the value of the diet as a whole with respect to its content of calories
and other nutritive elements. Now, in computing and comparing
levels of consumption, different measures can legitimately be used,
giving considerably different results. Much confusion has been
caused by the indiscriminate use of different measures, and it is use-
ful to preface this chapter with a short description of these methods.

The most complete, and in theory the most satisfactory measure
of food consumption, is the per caput quantity of various commod-
ities consumed during a certain period of time, generally the calendar
or crop year. This figure is obtained by dividing the supply available
for consumption (production changes in stocks, + imports, - ex-
ports, seed, feed, industrial consumption, spoilage, waste, etc.) by
the average number of consumers during the period. The figures
represent, as it were, the national food balance. In practice, how-
ever, relatively few countries possess the statistics necessary to com-
pute a total food balance, and even where available, the exact cal-
culation of the many deductions mentioned above is difficult if not
impossible. They remain, therefore, rather in the nature of approxi-
mations of actual consumption, tending on the whole to overestimate
it. The national food balance figures can be somewhat refined by
being expressed not per caput but per consumption unit of the
population. The need of individuals for food varies with age, sex
and occupation, and the consumption unit is a more uniform measure
of needs than the individual. As women and children, with their
smaller needs, are counted in terms of an "adult male," the number
of consumption units in a population is smaller than the number of
heads; hence, the per caput figures of consumption are lower than
the consumption unit figures, generally by some 25 per cent.

If all foods were rationed on an equal per caput basis, rationing
figures would correspond exactly to the food balance figures, pro-

[11]

vided the latter represented foods as purchased, i.e. if they took full
account of all diversions of food on the way from the producer to
the consumer. In actual fact this is not the case and the ration fig-
ures tend to be somewhat lower than the food balance figures. More-
over, food is not distributed equally over the population, tending still
further to increase the difference between the two sets of figures.
First, the agricultural population is, as has been pointed out, not
strictly rationed, but maintains on the whole its normal consumption
level. When the total food supply decreases, this implies a propor-
tionately greater contraction of the consumption of the urban popu-
lation. Rationing figures do not represent an over-all picture, but
show developments in the so-called critical area of consumption
above all that of industrial workers in the big cities. Secondly, even
within this area, rationing is not on an equal per caput basis. Differ-
ent consumer categories receive different rations according to as-
sumed physiological needs. If comparable per caput figures were
desired, it would be necessary to calculate special averages of the
consumption of the various consumer categories, but in the absence
generally of figures showing their numerical strength, such averages
cannot be constructed.

Nevertheless, in order to arrive at a representative picture of the
conditions within the rationed population, two complementary meth-
ods have been employed in these studies in the past. The first is to
consider the consumption of the greatest, most representative con-
sumption group that of "normal consumers." Certain groups (chil-
dren) have lower rations than normal consumers; others (heavy
and very heavy workers, soldiers, etc.) have higher rations. If the
excess and deficit balanced each other, the normal consumer figures
would represent the average consumption of the rationed groups. In
reality, partial information suggests that the children's rations are
not sufficiently lower than the normal consumer's rations to compen-
sate for the extra rations of heavy workers, 1 hence, the normal con-
sumers' rations tend to underestimate average consumption even of
the groups subject to rationing. But even so they are sufficiently
representative to permit of certain comparisons both as regards rela-
tive size of rations in different countries, and as regards develop-
ments over a period of time in one and the same country. The second
method is to compute consumption figures for a typical family com-
prising representatives of different consumer categories ; this family
can then be converted into consumption units and consumption ex-

1 Cf. "Food Rationing and Supply 1943/44" pages 30-32.

[12]

pressed in quantities (or calories) on the basis of this uniform unit.
These figures are more representative and allow certain general con-
clusions as to the physiological adequacy of different national diets. 1
Hereafter both methods will be utilized.

The original rationing data are expressed in grammes or pounds ;
in order, however, to arrive at a comparable measure, these figures
are usually converted into calories. This practice is now so common
that little defence is needed. A warning should rather be given
against the tendency of overestimating the significance of such fig-
ures : they express simply the energy value of different foods, and
are, like grammes or pounds, nothing more than a convenient yard-
stick. The nutritive value of a calorie of food depends on the nature
and quality of that food, and it is no less important to keep apart the
nutritive value of a calorie of food than of a gramme or a pound
of food.

Moreover, conversion of food into calories in a broad survey of
this nature must be fairly summary. The calorie figures given here
have, when not otherwise stated, been calculated according to a
uniform scale. 2 This procedure is open to objections in several re-

1 The relationship between these different kinds of estimates may be illustrated
by means of a simple numerical example. Assume a country having" equal numbers
of people in agricultural and non-agricultural occupations. Assume that the na-
tional food balance permits a consumption of 3000 calories a day per caput, and
that full account is taken of waste, etc. The consumption among farmers, how-
ever, is 4000 calories a day, and among non-farmers 2000 a day. Assume also that
"normal consumers" receive a ration of 1800 calories a day (children somewhat
less and workers somewhat more). It is supposed that the number of consump-
tion units (adult male equivalents) is 75% of population numbers. We arrive
then at the following relationships:

Calories per Day

Per Caput Per Consumption Uti it

National Food Balance 3000 4000

Farmers 4000 5333

Non-farmers :
"Normal Consumers"

Male 1800 1800

Female 1800 2020

Average 1800 1910

Family Consumption

(all categories) 2000 2667

It is easy to see that confusion results if these different measures arc indis-
criminately compared with physiological requirements which for a population as
a whole is generally expressed in terms of calories per diem per consumption
unit (not per caput).

2 Standard calorie tables give exact values for precisely defined foods. But it is
a question here of converting not individual foods, but broad food groups, and of
using some average of the calorie content in each group. The composition of food

[13]

spects. It is impossible to take into account many qualitative differ-
ences in food, and the calculations are subject to a considerable
margin of error : they should be considered in the nature of rough
approximations.

In estimating total calorie intake, it is important to take into ac-
count not only rationed but also unrationed foods. Total demand
for calories is much less elastic than demand for particular foods.
If, for instance, fats and meats are rationed but bread remains free,
experience shows that the demand for bread increases, leaving the
demand for total calories practically the same as before rationing.
As long, then, as some of the great staple foods remain free, total
calorie intake is also free; rationing affects the composition (and
the nutritive competency) of the diet but not total calorie intake:
in such a case rationing is called partial. But if all the great staple
foods (regularly supplying some 95% of total calories) are rationed,
it is impossible to make up for decreased quantities of rationed foods
by consuming more of the unrationed. Not only are such foods
(fruit, certain vegetables, game, etc.) expensive per calorie, but total
supplies are too small to affect greatly the total food balance. When
all the chief staple foods are rationed, rationing is here termed total.

For a number of reasons the chief being the difficulty of con-
structing and administering a system of differential rationing
countries have tried to maintain the flexibility of the food distribu-
tion system by excepting one or more staple foods from rationing
in so far as the supply situation permitted of such exception. The
most important of the budget regulators is bread; but its function
has also been taken by potatoes, and in some cases by milk and po-
tatoes. Hereafter, then, a distinction will be made in so far as possi-
ble between countries which have been obliged to adopt total ration-
ing and countries the supply situation of which has permitted them
to adopt a partial rationing. It should be remembered, however, that
as the war progressed, the supply situation generally became tighter,
and countries like Germany, which had initially left potatoes as the
budget regulator, had later to ration them and change from partial

groups, however, differs between countries, and from time to time in the same
country. Certain attempts have been made to account for important differences in
national consumption habits, but it has been impossible or impractical to account
for a number of such differences.

The figures below show the factors of conversion used to convert 1000 grammes
of a food group into calories (net). Bread (1 kg of flour or hard bread = 1.3 kg
of ordinary bread) 2600; cereals 3500 (Italy 3800) ; sugar (jam calculated on
the basis of 50% sugar content) 3800; potatoes 800; meat and meat products
2600 (bacon 4500) ; fats 7500; milk 650; cheese 3000; eggs 75 each.

DIAGRAM I

AVERAGE DAILY RATIONS OF NORMAL CONSUMERS IN
CALORIES DURING THE PERIOD 1940-1944

2000

15UO

1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1040 1941 1942 194 J 1041

2UOU

1500

1000

500

2000

1500

1000

1940 1941 1942 1943 l^M 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944

2000

1500

1000-

500-

2000

1500

:'..;i... .;... ...-. ':

1940 liMl 1M> 1943 1944 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944

2000-

1500-

1000

600.

[16]

to total rationing. In such borderline cases the countries have been
grouped with those having total rationing.

Owing to the difference in the supply situation, the methods of
rationing adopted and the character of the statistical data, it is use-
ful to consider separately the following broad groups of countries :
(I) Germany, German-dominated Europe, Finland and Italy, (II)
the U.S.S.R., (III) the United Kingdom and the European neutrals
and (IV) the rest of the world.

1. GERMANY, GERMAN-DOMINATED EUROPE, FINLAND AND ITALY

A. Countries in which Rationing was Total

Normal consumer rations. Diagram I shows the daily calorie ra-
tions of normal consumers of different foodstuffs, and total rations
in countries where rationing can be considered as total.

Bread, cereals and potatoes. The bulk of the body's energy re-
quirements is ordinarily supplied in the western world by bread,
cereals in other forms and potatoes. These starchy foods are within
wide limits interchangeable. Their dominating place in the diet is
explained by their cheapness ; bread has the further advantage of
being a relatively condensed food and, especially if made of whole
wheat flour, is also a valuable source of vegetable proteins and min-
erals. But generally bread consumption falls as income rises, and is
higher in poor than in rich countries. In fact, it is these foods gen-
erally that tend to maintain the calorie equilibrium of the average
diet, compensating for lower consumption of higher quality foods,
and hence serving as budget regulators.

The Continent of Europe is not ordinarily self-supporting in
cereals; about 10% of the total supply is imported. At the outbreak
of war imports were cut off, though for a while it was possible to
draw on reserve stocks which had been accumulated in preparing for
the contingency of war. But considerable changes in food policy be-
came necessary; most countries while succeeding in the maintenance
of total calorie levels of a sufficient height, came to depend more
and more on vegetable foods, which arc more economical in terms of
land and labour than animal foods. This, of course, implied a cutting
down of animal production and consumption, in particular of pigs,
poultry and eggs. Hence as the war progressed the diet came to be
composed more and more of cereals and potatoes and less of animal
foods. But owing to the importance of maintaining milk and fat
production, cereals had at the same time to be strictly husbanded.

[17]

It is easy to understand then that the size of bread rations by
themselves means relatively little. If the total calorie intake was to
be maintained the bread (and potato) consumption should have
been increased just enough to compensate for the decreased consump-
tion of animal foods and fats ; and bread rations at or even slightly
above the pre-war level might mean an actual decrease in total con-
sumption. In the same way comparisons of bread rations in differ-
ent countries are apt to be misleading unless the other components
of the diet are simultaneously taken into account. Countries like
Sweden, having relatively low bread rations, might have a satis-
factory total calorie intake whilst countries with much higher bread
rations might be at critically low levels of intake. A general picture
of the development of bread and potato rations is given in Table I.
Pre-war consumption figures per head not, however, strictly com-
parable, have been added.

Sugar. It should be remembered that unlike bread sugar is not an
essential foodstuff; it is, however, a highly concentrated source of
calories, and is to a large extent used as a condiment in combination
with other foods of greater nutritive value, such as fruit. The return
of calories per acre of sugar beet is remarkably high, but cultivation
requires a considerable outlay of labour. Hence, as is to be expected,
the variation in sugar rations is great, just as before the war its
consumption varied greatly according to income. Rations were well
maintained and even increased during the war, but were on the
whole considerably lower than pre-war consumption. The rations in
France and Italy were particularly low.

Meat and meat products. In spite of the great importance of meat
in national diets, it is difficult to obtain reliable measures of both
pre-war and war consumption. This group includes a great many
different products of different quality and origin, quantities as pur-
chased contain different proportions of fat, bone, waste, etc., and
any estimate of total intake remains extremely hazardous. On the
whole, however, it may be taken for granted that the quality of
meat deteriorated during the war, quantities as purchased containing
a larger proportion of waste and bones and less fat. Moreover, as
already noted, the legal rations of meats were often unobtainable in
the shops in the occupied countries. Meat rations generally, as op-
posed to bread rations, were not only below peacetime consumption
levels, but continued falling throughout the war. In some countries,
particularly in eastern and southern Europe, meat gradually dis-
appeared from the ordinary diet. Denmark alone was able to avoid

[18]

rationing. The scarcity of meat was felt the more acutely since the
supply of fish decreased radically because of the war. Only in Den-
mark and Norway, of the countries here considered, did fish remain
an important item in the diet, though in the latter country the catches

TABLE I

PRE-WAR PER CAPUT CONSUMPTION AND NORMAL CONSUMER RATIONS
OF CEREALS AND POTATOES 1940-44

(calories per head per day)

Country

1933/37

1940

1941

Wheat flour
Disappearance

Cereal
Potato
Con-
sumption

Bread
Cereal
Rations

Potato
Rations

Total

Germany

400

1370

925

895

Belgium

960

1680

600 (i, n)

400 (n)

1000

Poland
(Gov't. General)

430

2150

665

500 (n, iv)

1165

Netherlands

860

1620

835

900

305

1205

Norway

530

1340

725

Czechoslovakia
(Protectorate)

670

1710

1180

950

340 (iv)

1290

France

1220

1650

795

740

115(i)

880

Italy

1180

1800

770 (iv)

40 (iv)

810

Finland

380

1330

920 (in, iv)

740

Baltic States

souwce: Pre-war data: "Wheat Studies".

of the more valuable fish were largely reserved for German con-
sumption.

Fats. In Western diets, from one-quarter to one-third of total calo-
ries is generally provided in the form of fat. It should be remem-
bered, however, that a large part of this fat is contained in such
foods as milk, cheese, meat, nuts, etc., and that only a part is fat
purchased as such. It has been impossible to obtain figures for this

[19]

study of total fat consumption during' the war ; the figures here re-
late only to fats purchased as such. 1

From the point of view of nutrition, fats assume a position apart
from most other foods; they are in theory interchangeable with
carbohydrates, though some seem to be needed to prevent a deficiency
of fat-soluble vitamins (A and D). In the type of economy that
prevailed in Europe before the war, the supply of animal fat was
dependent to a great extent on direct imports or on the import of

TABLE I (Continued)

1942

1943

1944

Bread
Cereal
Rations

Potato
Rations

Total

Bread
Cereal
Rations

Potato
Rations

Total

Bread
Cereal
Rations

Potato
Rations

Total

865

400

1265

935

400

1335

955

400

1355

610

400

1010

625

400

1025

790

400

1190

640

340

980

805 (iv)

220 (iv)

1025

820

230

1050

865

370

1235

870

455

1325

885

405

1290

675

340 (iv)

1015

675

340

1015

675

340

1015

910

355

1265

955

345

1300

955

270

1225

740

110

850

740

110

925

815

110

925

675

750

565

625

755

785

700

815

835

680

705

230

935

800

230

1030

feeding stuffs for animals. In addition, vegetable fats were mainly
imported from overseas. Hence the blockade severely curtailed sup-
plies, and since the increased cultivation of plants furnishing oil was
unable to compensate for the deficiency created, fats early became
the most generally and most severely rationed of any of the chief
food groups.

1 The calorie totals given in this chapter, however, are naturally inclusive of the
indirect supply of fat.

[20]

Milk. Nutritional research has emphasized the unique value of
milk in the diet, and great efforts were made to maintain milk con-
sumption at the highest possible level ; whilst egg and meat produc-
tion were severely curtailed, milk production remained on a relatively
high level. This policy was so much the more natural, as a given
quantity of feeding stuffs returns a greater number of calories in the
form of milk than in the form of almost any other animal product.
Milk rationing was as a rule highly "differential," the milk being re-
served mainly if not exclusively for children, nursing or expectant
mothers and invalids; in most countries the rations of normal con-
sumers were nil.

Cheese. As a greater proportion of the available milk was con-
sumed in liquid form and every effort was made to maintain butter
production, the supply of cheese fell greatly and its fat content was
universally reduced. Rations amounted to only a fraction of pre-war
consumption.

Eggs. Eggs are expensive in terms of feeding stuffs and produc-
tion was most drastically reduced. Thus in Germany, rations in 1942
were but a sixth of pre-war consumption, and in most occupied
countries were even lower.

Coffee, tea, cocoa, etc. Since imports from overseas were practi-
cally cut off by the blockade, rations were small and finally ceased
altogether. Most countries, however, provided for rations of substi-
tute coffee.

Total rations. As considerable emphasis has of late been given to
data for normal consumer rations, the following table has been in-
serted, showing total rations of normal consumers per diem. It is
necessary, however, to keep in mind the reservations to which such
figures are subject. No exact numerical estimates of free or black-
market supplies are available. The greatest probable error is caused
by the difficulty of obtaining reliable figures for potato consumption,
potatoes having been free in many countries for part of the time,
or rationed only locally and in varying degree.

In Germany the total calorie level of the rations was maintained
throughout the war remarkably close to 2000 calories a day which
in a differential system of rationing may be considered as adequate.
Rations in Czechoslovakia though slightly lower were not signally
deficient in calories. The Netherlands maintained a level of around
1800 calories a day until 1944, when it became a theatre of war; the
level then began to fall and organized rationing eventually broke

[21]

TABLE II-

TOTAL AVERAGE RATIONS OF NORMAL CONSUMERS
(calories per diem)

Country

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

Germany

2125

2020

1940

1990

2000

Czechoslovakia

2045

1950

1875

1800

1760

Netherlands

1800

1785

1845

1765

Finland

1790

1650

1375

1640

1775

Norway

1580

1445

Belgium

1375

1325

1365

1555

Baltic States

1350

1305

1420

Slovakia

1350

1310

1230

France

1230

1110

1065

1135

Poland (Gov't. General)

1290

1235

1135

1160

Italy

1160

1020

930

990

Potatoes rationed in most coi
out in the above figures.

'Untries temporarily and locally only. Estimated potato rations are included through*

down in many places. In the next group the Baltic States, Bel-
gium, Finland, Norway and Slovakia the level varied roughly be-
tween 1300 and 1700 calories a day. This level is too low to main-
tain health and efficiency without substantial additions from the
illegal or the free market additions which were at least partially
forthcoming. France, with a level in the table of some 1100 calories,
would seem to belong in reality to the same group, for these figures
exclude some locally rationed goods and the substantial black-market
supplies. Poland and Italy appear at the bottom of the list, but both
are predominantly agricultural countries, less generally affected by
rationing than the more highly industrialized countries of the West.
It may be assumed as a general rule that black-market additions
increased in relative importance as calorie levels fell; without such
supplements it would indeed be difficult to explain how populations
rould have survived, albeit at deteriorating levels of health,

[22]

Rations of Different Consumer Categories

We have already noted that rationing during the second world
war was more differentiated than during the first, and that the degree
of differentiation became greater as rationing became more nearly
total. When nearly all foods are rationed, freedom of consumer's
choice is suspended, and people cannot, on their own initiative,
satisfy special needs deriving from age, sex or occupation. A ration-
ing system based upon equal per caput rations tends to favour per-
sons with relatively small nutritional needs, and to punish those
with relatively large needs. Hence, children and women would be
better off than men and adolescents ; light workers than heavy work-
ers, and so on. On the other hand, children, whose need for protec-
tive foods (in particular milk) is relatively greater than that of
adults, would be more subject to malnutrition (as opposed to under-
nutrition). Modern rationing systems, therefore, are differentiated
both according to quantity and to quality: persons whose work re-
quires heavy expenditure of energy receive as a category larger
rations of calorie foods, whilst children and expectant and nursing
mothers receive greater rations of protective foods, such as milk.
We consider first the quantitative aspects of differential rations.

Apart from the basic calorie ration (which should contain also
the basic requirements of proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins), the
need for calories is in direct proportion to muscular activity, and the
greater this extra need (i.e., the more heavy and sustained the work
performed), the more important it becomes that the extra calories
should be supplied in the form of condensed calorie foods, such as
fats, bread, sugar and meat; for the necessary calorie intake in the
form of potatoes and other low-calorie foods could not, because of
their greater bulk, avoid causing serious digestive disturbances. In
theory it would be most desirable and most economical to take into
account the varying needs of a large number of groups, but for
practical and administrative reasons the differentiation must be kept
within narrower limits. The highly developed Swedish system, for
instance, recognizes some fifty different groups, but in most coun-
tries a distinction is made between heavy and very heavy workers,
though in addition some recognition is often made of the special
needs of miners and lumbermen.

Table III shows heavy and very heavy workers' rations in 1944
and compares them with normal consumers' rations. In order to
appreciate the figures contained in this table it is useful to recall the

[23]

TABLE III

HEAVY AND VERY HEAVY WORKERS' RATIONS AS PERCENTAGE OF
NORMAL CONSUMER RATIONS IN 1944

(calories per diem}

Country

Normal Consumer

Heavy Worker

Very Heavy Worker

Calories

Index

Calories

Index

Calories

Index

Germany

Bread

880

100

1400

159

1765

201

Eats

240

100

350

146

640

267

Meat

100

225

237

315

332

Total

2000

100

2760

138

3500

175

Belgium
Bread

750

100

1155

154

1370

183

Fats

110

100

200

182

245

223

Meat

100

158

120

200

Total

1550

100

2080

134

2370

153

Czechoslovakia

Bread

880

100

1400

159

1770

201

Eats

185

100

295

159

585

316

Meat

100

225

237

315

332

Total

1760

100

2520

143

3270

186

Slovakia

Bread

595

100

710

119

1135

191

Fats

100

130

200

130

200

Meat

100

110

147

110

147

Total

1245

100

1460

117

1885

151

Finland

Bread

835

100

1340

160

1500

180

Fats

130

100

190

146

190

146

Meat

125

100

170

136

195

156

Total

1345

100

1955

145

2140

159

F ranee

Bread

815

100

910

112

910

112

Fats

100

225

155

375

Meat

100

142

125

208

Total

1135

100

1300

115

1400

123

Baltic States

Bread

745

100

1265

170

1635

219

Fats

195

100

280

144

525

269

Meat

100

185

195

270

284

Total

1420

100

2115

148

2815

198

Netherlands

Bread

805

100

1140

142

1475

182

Fats

140

100

210

150

415

296

Meat

100

110

244

185

411

Total

1765

100

2435

138

3255

184

[24]

estimates of relative calorie needs. It is assumed that an adult male
engaged in a sedentary occupation requires on an average 2400
calories a day (individual requirements vary, of course, according
to a good many circumstances such as age, weight, climate and indi-
vidual rate of metabolism). Light work requires some 75 extra
calories an hour, ordinary manual work some 140-300 calories an
hour, and very heavy work 300 or more. Assuming an eight-hour
day, a light worker would require some 3000 calories a day, an
ordinary worker 3600 calories or more, and a very heavy worker
4800 calories or more. A shoemaker may manage with 2400 calories
a day, a weaver with 2700; a farmhand may need 4100 calories or
more, and a lumberman 5000 or more. But it should not be assumed
that minor variations from these estimates, particularly for short
periods, are necessarily harmful; these figures are in the nature of
broad averages and lack precision in the individual case. Still, if
rations fall too much or for too long below the needs indicated, the
output of human energy decreases, as the organism cannot continue
for long to give out more energy than it receives. In interpreting
these figures it should be recalled, also, that workers' rations are
supplemented by additions from the black market; moreover, in
actual fact, consumption mostly takes place on a family basis. Where
ordinary rations are relatively liberal, surpluses may arise within
the family (particularly where there are several small children) in-
creasing the actual consumption of the breadwinner. Where family
rations are insufficient it is likely that the worker will share his extra
rations with the family, making his actual consumption smaller
than is indicated by ration figures. It is reported that, in order to
prevent such sharing, workers in some cases have had to be fed in
canteens. Hence the figures in Table III should be interpreted with
many reservations ; they indicate official aims rather than actual
consumption. As a general rule it seems safe to conclude that rations
have throughout been lower than is compatible with the optimum
efficiency of heavy and very heavy labour, although frequently suffi-
cient for the needs of persons engaged in light or moderate work.
Table IV is designed to show the relative calorie rations of chil-
dren as compared with other consumer groups ; the figures relate to
the year 1944, but no great differences would emerge if prior years
were also included. Different ideas exist as to the relative calorie
needs of children; the scale adopted here is that laid down by the
Health Organisation of the League of Nations, and does not differ
greatly from most modern scales. It should be remembered, however,

[25]

TABLE IV

CHILDREN, NURSING AND EXPECTANT MOTHERS: RATIONS IN CALORIES
PER DIEM COMPARED WITH NORMAL REQUIREMENTS IN 1944

(a-rations in calories, b-rations as percentage of requirements.)

Consumer Category

Germany

Belgium

Czechoslovakia

Slovakia

Adult Male a
(Requirements 2400) b

2000
83

1550

1760

1245
52

Nursing and Exp. Mothers a
(Requirements 2400-3000) b

2325
97-78

2410
100-80

2085
87-70

1505
62-50

Children 0-1 yr. a
(Requirements 720) b

1890

263

1915
266

1710

238

1335
185

Children 1-2 yrs. a
(Requirements 840) b

1890

225

1915
228

1710
204

1335
159

Children 2-3 yrs. a
(Requirements 1000) b

1890
189

1915
192

1710
171

1335
134

Children 3-4 yrs. a
(Requirements 1128) b

1805
160

1795
159

1710
152

1645
146

Children 4-5 yrs. a
(Requirements 1248) b

1805
145

1795
144

1710
137

1645
132

Children 5-6 yrs. a
(Requirements 1368) b

1805
138

1795
131

1710
125

1645
120

Children 6-7 yrs. a
(Requirements 1512) b

2085
138

1675
111

1830
121

1575
104

Children 7-8 yrs. a
(Requirements 1632) b

2085
128

1675
103

1830
112

1575
97

Children 8-9 yrs. a
(Requirements 1752) b

2085
119

1675
95

1830
104

1575
90

Children 9-10 yrs. a
(Requirements 1872) b

2085
111

1675
89

1830
98

1575
84

Children 10-11 yrs. a
(Requirements 1992) b

2370
119

1675
84

2115
106

1575
79

Children 11- 12 yrs. a
(Requirements 2160) b

2370
110

1675
78

2115
98

1575
73

Children 12-13 yrs. a
(Requirements 2280) b

2370
104

1675
73

2115
93

1575
69

Children 13-14 yrs. a
(Requirements 2400) b

2370
99

1675
70

2115
88

1575
66

Young Persons 14-20 yrs. a
(Requirements 2400-3000) b

2130
89-71

1620
68-54

1760
73-59

1245
52-42

[26]

TABLE IV (Continual)

Finland

France

Baltic States

Netherlands

Norway

Poland
(Gov't. Gen.)

1345
56

1135

1420
59

1765

1445
60

1160
48

1735
72-58

1490
62-50

1745
73-58

2090
87-70

1770
74-59

1160
48-39

1550
215

1175
163

1490
207

1610

224

1515
210

780
108

1425
170

1175
140

1490

177

1610
192

1515
180

780
93

1425
143

1175
118

1490
149

1610
161

1600
160

780

1345
119

1320
117

1395
124

1610
143

1600
142

780
69

1345
108

1320
106

1395
112

2040
163

1600
128

780
63

1345
98

1320
96

1395
102

2040
149

1600
117

780
57

1345
89

1135

1910
126

2040
135

1625
107

780
52

1345

1135
70

1910
117

2040
125

1625
99

780
48

1345

1135
65

1910
109

2040
116

1625
93

780
45

1345

1135
61

1910
102

2040
109

1625
87

780
42

1345
68

1135
57

1910
96

2040
102

1625
82

780
39

1345
62

1135

1910
88

2040
94

1625
75

780
36

1345
59

1135
50

1910
84

2040
89

1840
81

780
34

1345
56

1205
50

1910
80

2040
85

1840

780
33

1590
66-53

1205
50-40

1910
80-64

2170
90-72

1840
77-61

1160
48-39

[27]

that all scales of this nature relate to average conditions, and that
they should be considered as the approximate aim of desirable con-
sumption rather than as an exact measure of needs. Minor deficits,
particularly for periods which are not too prolonged, are not neces-
sarily of lasting harm to future growth and health. The scale relates
to basic needs without taking into account additional needs caused by
muscular activity, a factor especially important in the case of adoles-
cents; hence it has been assumed here that the requirements of the
age group 14-20 amount to 3000 calories a day.

The table indeed illustrates the great difficulties of differential
rationing. The physiological requirements change gradually from
month to month and from year to year; perfect adjustment to physi-
ological needs would require different rations for each year-group or
less. In reality, however, it has been necessary to divide children into
three or four groups, whose relative needs are unevenly satisfied.
The first group generally includes children 0-3 years of age, and as
the needs of a new-born infant are much lower than those of a
three-year-old, the former is relatively speaking much better off
than the latter. The fewer the consumer groups and thus the wider
the age-span within them, the greater are the inequalities, in terms
of need, within each group and for the child population as a whole;
the greater also is the likelihood that relative abundance will coexist
with relative scarcity, and the more difficult it becomes to evaluate
tho nutritional level of the group as a whole.

Still without attaching undue weight to any particular figure, it
can be observed that the younger the child is the greater is its relative
ration. For the first year of life the actual ration was 263% of the
required ration in Germany, and in no case was it lower than in
Poland 108%. But everywhere this ratio falls as the age advances,
so that it falls ultimately below standard requirements in all cases.
This critical level, however, was reached at different ages in different
countries ; and the higher the general level of rations, the later it was
reached : in Germany between the ages of 14 and 20, and in Poland
between 1 and 2. It can be assumed that the situation was equally
critical in countries of eastern and southern Europe, for which fig-
ures were missing, but the age group most badly hit is, throughout,
that of adolescents and young persons, who were with few ex-
ceptions treated as normal consumers whilst their needs are on the
average considerably higher. The percentages of normal require-
ments supplied by the rations varied from 70-90% in Germany and
the Netherlands to 30-50% in Italy, Slovakia, France and Poland,

[28]

The remaining countries managed to realize 50-70% of the required
ration for adolescents.

The fact that children's rations were on the whole higher in terms
of need than were those of other consumer categories reflects in large
part, no doubt, a deliberate policy. In any rationing system aiming
at safeguarding the health of future generations account must be
taken of the fact that actual consumption depends not only on the
size of legal per caput rations, but also on the distribution of rations
within the family. It is difficult to safeguard children's consumption
if the parents' rations are themselves insufficient; and where the nor-
mal consumer's rations are low, it is usual to make children's rations
liberal enough to create a surplus that can be used to make up
deficiencies in the parental consumption. In fact, children's rations
seem also to have served as an indirect allotment to parents or a
premium on family consumption as compared with individual con-
sumption. In Germany, for instance, the calorie surplus of an infant
was sufficient to bring the consumption of both parents, who were
normal consumers, much above standard requirements.

But even more important than these quantitative discriminations
in favour of children were the qualitative ones. It has already been
observed that growing children have relatively greater requirements
than adults of proteins, minerals and vitamins. They need, therefore,
relatively more protective foods such as fruit, vegetables and, above
all, milk. And, as fruits and vegetables remained free in most coun-
tries, the most important difference in rations related to milk. Tn
most cases milk was reserved exclusively for children and expectant
and nursing mothers, whilst other categories were left without any
regular distribution. Now, milk production was throughout better
maintained than the production of other animal foods, and for this
reason the quality of children's diets deteriorated less than one might
a priori have assumed. Table V shows the milk rations of children
in Continental Europe.

It should be noted that in Great Britain children under six years
of age received 570 grammes of milk daily and children 6-14 years
half of this amount. On the Continent children under three years of
age received generally 750 grammes a day (except in Yugoslavia,
Italy, Poland, Russia and Greece). The age-group 3-6 years was
again fairly adequately supplied at the level of 500 grammes, except
in the countries already mentioned. Real deficiencies developed only
for older children, although on the whole rations were not lower
than those in the United Kingdom; it should be remembered also

[29]

that consumption in most countries was already deficient before the
war, and that in many cases even the low rations represented an
improvement in rather than a reduction of the actual consumption
of large categories of children.

This brief survey has shown to what extent differential rationing

TABLE V
MILK RATIONS FOR CHILDREN IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES AS OF AUGUST 1944

(grammes per diem)

Country

Under 3 yrs.

3-6 yrs.

6-10 yrs.

10-14 yrs.

Germany

750

500

250

Belgium

750

500

250

Czechoslovakia

750

250

Slovakia 0-1 yr.
1-3 yrs.

750
500

500

Finland 0-1 yr.
1-3 yrs.

900
600

600

France

750

250

Hungary 0-1 yr.
1-3 yrs.

1000
750

500

Baltic States

750

500

250

Netherlands

750

500

Norway

750

500

Yugoslavia (Croatia)

500

United Kingdom

570

285

Switzerland

670

developed during the war. It is more difficult to evaluate the results
of the system, but on the whole it seems that children constituted the
most favoured group. Families were better off than isolated persons
who were normal consumers; women better off than men. Adoles-
cents, on the other hand, were probably worse off on an average than
normal consumers, and it is doubtful whether the extra rations of
very heavy workers in particular were sufficient to compensate for
the extra calories required for their work.

[30]

Workers' Family Consumption

As we have seen, consumers of different categories are unequally
treated under the rationing systems which developed during this
war. It is of interest, therefore, to try to give a comparable picture
of the consumption of people living in actual families; and the
following calculations relate to the rations of a typical family. Most
countries had before the war constructed indices measuring the cost
of living of what was assumed to be a typical working-class family.
The actual consumption figures used in measuring living costs were
obtained from family budget enquiries. In order to link up the
rationing data with the peacetime statistics on family consumption, it
is desirable to use a family unit corresponding as closely as possible
to the "typical family" of the national family budget enquiries. The
"typical family" in this sense which is not necessarily the "average"
family is as a rule supposed to consist of husband, wife and two
or three children. Since it differs slightly from country to country,
in order to arrive at figures fully comparable with peacetime figures,
it would be necessary to use a "typical family" for each country. But
the national differences between them are not great, and in order to
safeguard the international comparability of the wartime figures, a
standard family has been selected composed of husband, wife and
three children arbitrarily aged 3, 6 and 9 years. The rations of the
members of this family are added together and divided by the num-
ber of consumption units contained in the family. The scale that has
been used to convert the family members into consumption units
is the League of Nations scale, and the five persons of the family
correspond to 3.32 adult male equivalents.

As the average consumption of all consumers can normally be as-
sumed to be higher than the consumption of "normal consumers,"
and as there are more persons than consumption units in the family,
the figures of family consumption are naturally higher at a given
level of consumption than "normal consumer" figures. It should be
remembered that the average calorie need of a population (including
heavy and very heavy workers, etc.) is generally supposed to be 3000
calories per consumption unit ; the need for rural populations may be
slightly higher and for urban populations slightly lower. As the fig-
ures given above relate to urban workers mainly, the need may in
many cases be below the national average.

[31]

TABLE VI

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per consumption unit)

BALTIC STATES

1936/37

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1200

900

825

985

Cereals

140

Potatoes

375

(345)

345

Sugar, Jam, etc.

300

150

140

Meat & Meat Prod.

535

145

115

Fish

Fats

320

300

275

Whole Milk

380

345

295

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

3465

2325

2135

2295

BELGIUM

1928/29

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1495

880

905

1130

Cereals

(40)

Potatoes

485

600

Sugar, Jam, etc.

205

235

255

Meat & Meat Prod.

355

105

100

Fish

Fats

570

135

165

Whole Milk

260

295

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

3575

2290

2355

2635

[32]

TABLE VI (Continued)

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per consumption unit)

BULGARIA

1927/28

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1980

1190

1210

1890

Cereals

190

Potatoes

Sugar, Jam, etc.

110

205

235

175

Meat & Meat Prod.

240

195

240

225

Fish

Fats

205

340

280

Whole Milk
Skimmed Milk

45
5

1 200*

200*

Cream

Cheese

40*

Eggs

60*

30*

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruit

Total

2960

2320

2400

2900

CZECHOSLOVAKIA (Protectorate)

1931/1932

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1190

950

945

990

1045

Cereals

160

100

115

Potatoes

220

510

535

520

405

Sugar, Jam, etc.

305

340

Meat & Meat Prod.

285

210

160

140

110

Fish

Fats

405

250

260

265

Whole Milk

275

(395)

395

365

360

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruit

Total

2905

2845

2740

2745

2635

[33]

TABLE VI (Continued)

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per consumption unit)

FINLAND

1928

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1010

/ 1095

1045

1185

1210

Cereals

160

Potatoes

250

Sugar, Jam, etc.

310

225

175

105

Meat & Meat Prod.

250

160

195

Fish

Fats

420

320

190

280

245

Whole Milk

555

460

430

460

465

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

3075

2260

1915

2070

2220

FRANCE

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread Si Flour

925

900

920

1040

Cereals

Potatoes

(175)

(165)

Sugar, Jam, etc.

110

120

Meat & Meat Prod.

160

100

Fish

Fats

180

150

115

Whole Milk

(345)

345

335

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

2015

1870

1800

1900

[34]

TABLE VI (Continued)

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per ronfumptwn unit)

GERMANY

1927/28

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

995

955

940

910

990

1045

Cereals

140

Potatoes

355

(600)

600

Sugar, Jam, etc.

195

275

290

285

Meat & Meat Prod.

350

225

200

160

140

110

Fish

Fats

485

365

330

350

Whole Milk

280

290

Skimmed Milk

(60)

Cream

Cheese

40 45

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

2900

2970

2910

2840

2900

2940

ITALY

1929

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1320

785

660

610

885

Cereals

605

370

375

415

355

Potatoes

(115)

115

Sugar, Jam, etc.

105

100

110

Meat & Meat Prod.

130

100

Fish

Fats

305

180

145

160

Whole Milk

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

(55)

Eggs

(15)

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

2560

1755

1565

1505

1590

[35]

TABLE VI (Continued]

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per consumption unit)

IN Ll> 1 nJC/IVl^/l.M L/O

1935/36

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1210

1070

1020

1080

1070

Cereals

190

180

160

Potatoes

370

500

620

555

Sugar, Jam, etc.

250

240

255

Meat Meat Prod.

235

140

135

Fish

Fats

510

315

275

245

240

Whole Milk

310

445

410

380

390

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

3195

2855

2845

2860

2780

Bread Flour

Cereals

Potatoes

Sugar, Jam, etc.

Meat & Meat Prod.

Fish

Fats

Whole Milk

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

NORWAY

1927/28

1941

1942

1943

1944

1090

930

940

205

510

280

165

310

590

465

340

290

360

3155

2590

2305

2315

[36]

TABLE VI (Continued)

COMPARISON OF FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CONSUMPTION UNIT OF A
TYPICAL FAMILY DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD AND 1940-1944

(Calories per consumption unit)

POLAND (Gov't. General)

1929

1941

1942

1943

1944

Bread & Flour

1550

690

705

820

840

Cereals

100

Potatoes

445

490

415

330

345

Sugar, Jam, etc.
Meat & Meat Prod.

215
335

175
60

165
45

115

115
55

Fish

Fats

120

130

Whole Milk

140

135

125

Skimmed Milk

Cream

Cheese

Eggs

Fresh Vegetables

Fresh Fruits

Total

3025

1830

1650

1365

1405

DIAGRAM II

WORKERS' DIETS IN 1944 AS PERCENTAGE OE PRE-WAR
(Calorics per consumption unit per diem)

POLAND

ITALY

BALTIC STATES

FINLAND

BELGIUM

NORWAY

NETHERLANDS

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

BULGARIA

GERMANY

[37]

111 Diagram II the rations per consumption unit are compared
with peacetime consumption figures. The shaded areas in the diagram
indicate the extra calories supplied to heavy and very heavy workers'
families; the actual average falls between the figures for normal con-
sumers' and very heavy workers' rations. The pre-war consumption
has in all cases been taken as equal to 100; it should be remembered,
however, that the peacetime figures are of varying value and repre-
sentativeness. They relate, on the whole, to the skilled and better-
paid portion of the industrial working class, and may tend to over-
estimate rather than to underestimate average consumption in urban
areas. As seen from the table, the level of consumption differs con-
siderably from one country to another ; but an equal percentage de-
crease in consumption cannot be taken to imply an equal nutritional
sacrifice. Nevertheless, the decrease in consumption for the Continent
as a whole is less drastic than a superficial survey of normal-
consumer rations would indicate, and the reductions would appear
even smaller if it had been possible to include agricultural labour and
farmers, and supplies derived from the black market.

DIAGRAM III

WORKERS' DIETS IN 1944 AS PERCENTAGE OF NORMAL
REQUIREMENTS (3000 CALORIES)
(Calorics per consumption unit per diem)

HEAVY
WORKER

POLAND

ITALY

FINLAND

NORWAY

BALTIC STATES

BELGIUM

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

NETHERLANDS

BULGARIA

GERMANY

10 20 30 40 50 60

[38]

In order to permit of more precise international comparisons,
Diagram III has been inserted. It shows consumption per consump-
tion unit as a percentage of normal requirements (3000 calories per
diem per consumption unit). It should be remembered, however, that
large sections of the population in Europe, even in peacetime, existed
on a less generous allowance. The 3000 standard relates to a popula-
tion of an average body weight of 70 kgs. living in a temperate cli-
mate, although in southern Europe a warmer climate and a lower
average body weight permit people to manage with a considerably
smaller intake than in northern and western Europe. But it is im-
possible here to undertake corrections for such factors.

It has unfortunately been impossible also to construct index fig-
ures for the areas most seriously affected by the war Greece, parts
of Yugoslavia and the parts of Russia occupied by the Germans dur-
ing some period of the war. These areas suffered, at least tempo-
rarily, from outright famine. A brief description of developments in
Greece will give an idea of the conditions prevailing in such areas. 1
Greece normally imported some 40% of her wheat, all of her sugar,
and considerable quantities of meat; in all, some 20-25% of her
foods were derived from imports. After the Axis aggression, imports
were cut off, while domestic production fell sharply; as late as 1945
grain production was only 60% of normal, draught animals were
down by 45%, cattle by 40%, sheep by 30%, etc. Price-control and
rationing broke down early, and even the black market ceased to
supply significant quantities of food. The calorie value of the offi-
cially distributed foods was estimated in the Athens-Piraeus area to
be 458 a person a day in July 1941, 183 in November, and 357 in
March 1942. Communal soup kitchens supplied, according to the
same estimates, a further 140 calories a day. Taking into account all
the sources of supply, including the black market, the majority of the
city population is estimated to have received some 600-800 calories
a day per head, or less than a third of requirements. From the begin-
ning of 1942, however, some imports became available, and relief
activities inaugurated by the International Red Cross and continued
by the Mixed Commission of representatives of the International
and the Swedish Red Cross gradually brought the situation under
control. The activities of UNRRA have further alleviated the situa-
tion, bringing the consumption up to some 2000 calories a day per
head of the population.

In considering the situation in Poland and Yugoslavia, the pre-

1 Cf. also Food Rationing and Supply, 1943/44, pages 37-40.

[39]

dominantly agrarian nature of these countries must be taken into
account. Official rations in Poland represented perhaps some 50% of
requirements and may have been accessible to Poles in the provinces
"incorporated" with Germany (Germans received the German ra-
tions) ; but it is not possible to make a generalization on the basis of
conditions in the "Government General." Rations were less generally
available, and the authorities were often obliged in order to main-
tain the working efficiency of labour employed in industries con-
sidered as essential to have recourse to canteen feeding. The insuffi-
ciency and irregularity of rationing compelled city dwellers to have
recourse to the black market in order to survive ; but as prices soared
out of their reach, ordinary wage-earners became subject to great
privations. The rations of Jews amounted to half of the insufficient
rations granted to Poles; and when the Jews were officially con-
sidered exterminated, no further issues of rationing cards were
made to them.

A second category of countries is formed by Italy and France.
Legal rations, at least by the end of the war, probably represented
not more than 60% of normal requirements. As regards Italy, how-
ever, it should be recalled that peacetime consumption was fairly low.
Moreover, the rationing system never reached the completeness and
consistency of more administratively advanced nations. Food produc-
tion was maintained, more or less at the normal level during 1940
and 1941, but began to decline in 1942. Nation-wide rations existed
only for cereals, fats and sugar ; most animal products and potatoes
were locally rationed according to supply. The local rations varied
from place to place, and from period to period, making exact esti-
mates exceedingly hazardous. As some 12 million self -suppliers were
allowed to retain food sufficient for their own consumption, the
fluctuations in the rations of the marginal urban population were
unusually wide. According to estimates by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, 1 the per caput calorie intake in the period 1933-1937
was 2550 per head of the total population (corresponding to about
3400 calories per consumption unit). During the war years this
figure is supposed to have dwindled to about 2000 in 1943, and to
about 1900 in 1944. Owing to the lack of an efficient distribution
system, the reduction in the urban rations was much larger, though
it is estimated that from 1943 the additions to rations from non-
rationed sources may have amounted on an average to about 800
calories a day per person. After the invasion of Italy, and up to the

1 World Food Situation, 1946. Washington, 1946.

[40]

collapse of German resistance, the country was divided into two or
more zones and it is difficult to give a picture of average con-
sumption.

The situation in France is in many respects similar to that in
Italy. The large rural population continued to live more or less as
usual, and the curtailment of supply fell heavily on the urban pop-
ulations. Hence, while in the crop year 1943/44 French food supplies
allowed 2150 calories a person a day (or 2800-2900 calorics per con-
sumption unit), the actual normal consumer family in the cities may
have received considerably less than 2000 per consumption unit ; it
is known, however, that all but the poorest city groups received sub-
stantial additions from sources outside the official rations. France
suffered as much from a maldistribution of food as from absolute
shortages.

Conditions in Finland varied considerably as a consequence of the
two separate wars in which she was involved, and of fluctuations
in imports. Almost 60% of the population is occupied in agriculture,
and while their consumption may not have been greatly affected, the
position of the city population deteriorated considerably. But to-
gether with the Baltic States, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Nor-
way, she belonged to the category of German-dominated areas where
the calorie intake remained on a level fluctuating on the whole be-
tween 2500 and 2800 calories per consumption unit a day. Con-
sumption in Germany and Czechoslovakia was maintained fairly
consistently between 2800 and 3000 calories per consumption unit.

Considering the Continent as a whole, then, one finds that the
calorie consumption was for the large majority of people main-
tained at levels which, if not up to optimum requirements, were at
least sufficient to prevent starvation, or even a really serious state of
calorie deficiency. The rural populations (except as a result of direct
warfare) were hardly affected; and such decreases in consumption
as took place were concentrated among the marginal city popula-
tions, in particular those too poor to patronize the black market. The
position of this marginal population varied considerably. It was
serious and indeed desperate in Poland, parts of Yugoslavia, and
during certain periods in Greece, and it was probably as bad in the
parts of Russia which were occupied by Germany. The position was
highly unsatisfactory in Italy and France, due largely to imperfec-
tions of distribution. Such starvation or actual privation as existed
on the Continent as a whole was the result, not so much of a general
lack of calories, as of a conscious policy on the part of the occupying

[41]

power of grading diets according to social or other criteria (the ex-
termination of the Jews, discrimination against the Poles, etc.) and
of the maldistribution of food owing to inefficient rationing systems,
or to the breakdown of economic activity in general following upon
direct physical destruction in warfare.

This conclusion may at first sight appear paradoxical. Supplies
were curtailed; imports normally amounting to some 10% of total
calorie supplies fell away altogether; crop production, owing to the
lack of manpower, draught animals, fertilizers, etc., also fell through-
out the war ; according to estimates of the United States Department
of Agriculture the Continental food production in 1943/44 may
have been some 15% lower than pre-war. 1 The explanation of the
situation, of course, rests partly on the fact that calorie consumption
before the war in some areas was relatively high, permitting certain
reductions in consumption without immediate serious effects. But for
the most part the explanation is to be sought in shifts in the com-
position of the diet. Though in wartime the main emphasis naturally
falls on the adequacy of the diet in respect of calories, it is in the
long run no less important to consider the quality of the diet.

The Animal-Vegetable Ratio

The majority of diets are based on cereals and root crops. These
staple foods hold their position by virtue of their cheapness, and as
families or nations increase in wealth they tend to consume more
sugar, fruits, vegetables, meat, milk, milk products and eggs. As
nutritional standards increase people consume more calories of ani-
mal origin and fewer calories of vegetable origin. Indeed, the balance
between animal and vegetable calories in the diet the so-called
animal-vegetable ratio is perhaps the most significant single index
of dietary standards. Where diets are adequate according to modern
standards as in certain northwestern European nations or in North
America the animal-vegetable ratio was before the war approxi-
mately 40:60. This does not mean that satisfactory diets could not
be constructed on a different ratio; but according to all indications
a free consumer's choice seems to lead to adequate diets on or about
this level.

But animal foods are indirectly derived from vegetable crops.
Owing to incomplete assimilation of feed by the animals, their
energy requirements for activity and maintenance of body tempera-

1 World Food Situation, page 43.

[42]

ture, the necessity of maintaining breeding stock, production of in-
edible portions, and unavoidable losses in slaughter, a part only of
the feed given to animals is returned in the form of animal foods
fit for human consumption. The ratio between feed calories and the
animal food product varies with agricultural technique and the
nature of the product. Some four or five feed calories may be used
to produce one calorie in the form of milk, whilst eighteen or more
may be required to produce one calorie in the form of beef or eggs.
Thus by increasing the animal ratio in the diet we multiply the need
for primary crop calories. If, as in Europe, before the war, about
seven feed calories on an average are required to produce one calorie
of animal food, the number of primary calories needed to produce a
diet containing 3000 calories fit for human consumption varies from
that number, if the diet is altogether of vegetable origin, to 21,000
if the diet is altogether of animal origin. A diet composed of half
animal and half vegetable calories requires 12,000 primary calories or
four times as many as a pure vegetable diet; similarly, an animal-
vegetable ratio of 40 :60 requires 10,200 primary calories. Some land
is so poor that its most economical use is for grazing, and some by-
products of crops are best used in the form of feed ; moreover, crop
land for optimum productivity requires the application of animal
manure. But with such reservations, it is obvious that a country hav-
ing a fairly high animal ratio, can divert crops from animal to direct
human consumption and maintain the total consumption of calories
in the human diet in spite of fairly large decreases in total crops.
Thus let us assume that a country has an animal- vegetable ratio of
30:70 and that total crops decrease by, say, 20%, Assuming that
productivity is not affected, the calorie equilibrium in the human diet
would be restored at an animal-vegetable ratio of 21 :79. Hence, the
fact of a high animal ratio implies the presence of a food buffer of
crops that can be diverted to direct human consumption, in addition
to the calorie reserve constituted by the livestock itself. In countries
with a low animal-vegetable ratio, crop failures result in a direct
decrease in the supply of human food, and, if increased imports fail
to materialize, in famine.

According to estimates made by J. H. Richter, 1 the Continent of
Europe produced before the war roughly 90% of its calorie food
requirements; 78% of the human diet was of vegetable and 22% of
animal origin. If we assume that imports stopped and domestic

1 "Continental Europe's Prewar Food Balance," U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Foreign Agriculture, August 1942.

[43]

crops fell by 15%, an assumed pre-war human consumption of 3000
calories a day should in theory have been maintained at an animal-
vegetable ratio of 12 :88, a reduction which would still leave animal
consumption at a higher level than in many other parts of the world.
Obviously, however, neither before nor during the war did the
Continent constitute a real economic unit. These broad averages
cover great national differences. In Germany the peacetime ratio was
about 1 to 2, and in Scandinavia 2 to 3. In the poorer countries, such
as Poland or Bulgaria, it was 1 to 4 or more. Diagram IV below
shows the ratio of vegetable calories in the diet during the years
1941-1944 and before the war in typical working-class families.

As will be seen from the diagram the German authorities in charge
of economic policy followed the natural course of decreasing the
production and consumption of animal foods and using primary
crops in increasing degree for direct human consumption. But the
reduction of animal consumption was uneven. In Germany itself
the percentage of vegetable food increased from about 67% to
77% of total calories; in 1944 percentages about the same as in
Germany or slightly lower were found in Finland, the Netherlands,
Norway, the Baltic States and France. In the same year figures be-
tween 90% and 70% were found in Czechoslovakia, Italy, Bulgaria
and Belgium. Almost exclusively vegetable diets of 90% or more
were found in Poland, and by all indications in parts of Yugoslavia,
occupied Russia and Greece.

We find then, considering the Continent as a whole, an uneven but
in many cases fairly high ratio of animal consumption, together with
varying degrees of calorie deficiencies. To a certain extent this de-
pends upon the difficulty of undertaking rapid changes in agriculture.
As artificial fertilizers grew scarce, livestock became an ever more
important source of animal manure, without which future crop pro-
duction must have fallen drastically. It should be recalled also that
the animal proportion was maintained more cheaply than before the
war. Milk is not only the nutritionally most important of all animal
foods, but it is also cheaper in terms of feed calories than meat and
eggs. All over the Continent, then, we find the milk herds relatively
well maintained, whilst pigs and hens, which compete more directly
with human beings for food, have been drastically reduced.

However, the relatively favourable position of Germany with re-
spect to both the quantity and the quality of her diet was obtained to
a large extent at the expense of the Continent as a whole. Imported
animal products from occupied Europe lowered the diet in the ex-

DIAGRAM IV

PERCENTAGE OF VEGETABLE CALORIES IN THE DIET OF A

TYPICAL FAMILY, PRE-WAR AND DURING THE YEARS 1941-1944

(Calories per consumption unit per diem)

FRANCE

i i

I 1 I 1

vl._>.|

r 040

1943

1944

FINLAND n

1941

1942
1943

BALTIC D "^
STATES Pre-War
1942
1943

NORWAY 1944

1941
1942
1943

NETHER- PT . A

^^^^^^^

LANDS Ifl41
1942
1943

1944
GERMANY n

1941
1942
1943

CZECH - Pre-rfar
SLOVAKIA 1Q41

1942
1943

BELGIUM p " 44
Pro-far

1942
1943

1944
BULGARIA rt
Pre-War

1942
1943

ITALY p "* 4
Pre-War

1941
l42 r
1^43

POMHD ""
(Cyi't. /"-War
General) 1941
1942
1943
1944

ii ii ii i i i

) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1C

[45]

porting country not by the calorie value of the animal export alone,
but by the amount of primary calories which could in the absence of
such export have been diverted to direct human consumption. But it
would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain a reliable estimate of
the quantitative importance of such factors, for the cycle of farming
generally requires animals to produce crops as well as crops to pro-
duce and maintain animals. But considering the wartime experience
as a whole, one is struck with the degree of success with which the
rationing authorities were able to maintain not only a rough calorie
balance for human consumption, but also the precarious and shifting
balance between animal and vegetable production. The inequalities
and injustices of the system were founded on political considerations
of varying nature, rather than on economic necessities or on the
absence of administrative skill or potential resources.

Composition of Diets

Having considered the calorie content of diets, and the sweeping
shift from animal to vegetable consumption, it is now necessary to
consider the nutritional value of the wartime diets.

As already indicated, the cheapest and most abundant source of
energy is contributed by carbohydrates. The lower the quality of the
diet the higher is their proportion in it. Obviously, then, the first
effect of the lowered wartime rations was an increase in the relative
amount of carbohydrates consumed in particular, in the form of
bread and potatoes ; sugar consumption was on the whole main-
tained at nutritionally adequate levels.

In theory, fats are important as a concentrated source of energy
and are interchangeable with carbohydrates. Fat is one of the chief
energy-giving constituents of the diet, and is of special importance
to persons performing heavy work or living in a cold climate and
therefore in need of a diet rich in calories. It is impossible to lay
clown either the relative or the absolute amount of fat needed, but
when fat consumption falls much below the levels to which people
have become accustomed (in the West some 400-700 calories a day)
morale and efficiency are rapidly affected and there develops a feeling
of hidden hunger and general discomfort. Indeed, there is abundant
testimony to the effect that the decrease of fat in the diet has been
more keenly felt than almost any other individual shortage.

Fats purchased as such, however, represent only a part of total
fat consumption. Much is consumed indirectly in the form of milk,

[46]

cheese, cream, meat, bacon, nuts, etc. Most of these indirect sources
.of fat have also been rationed, and in many cases their fat content
has been reduced, either by direct government regulation as in the
case of milk and cheese (the sale of cream was as a rule altogether
prohibited), or as a result of the leaner feeding of slaughter animals.
With reference to the figures of fats purchased as such, it should be
remembered that they understate the actual contraction of fat con-
sumption.

TABLE VII

FATS "PURCHASED AS SUCH": AVERAGE RATIONS OE A TYP1CA1 FAMILY
(Calories per diem per consumption unit]

Country

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

France

180

150

115

Belgium

135

165

Italy

180

145

160

Netherlands

315

275

245

240

Finland

320

190

280

245

C/echoslovakia

230

250

260

265

Baltic States

300

275

Bulgaria

340

280

Norway

465

340 | 340

340

( icrmany

365

330

350

Among Western nations dieticians seem to favour diets furnish-
ing one-fourth to one-third of total calorics in the form of fat. The
lower of thc^c figures would give a daily allowance of about 700
calories; how large a part of this is in the form of indirect con-
sumption varies with a great many circumstances and with local
habit; fats purchased as such, however, rarely exceed 500 calories a
day, and figures of 400 or thereabouts are not necessarily to be con-
sidered as inadequate. With such figures in mind, it can easily be
perceived how general and how drastic the reduction in fat con-
sumption has been. The highest figures were found in Denmark,
Norway and Germany, with rations in 1944 of about 300 calories or
more per consumption unit; rations between 200 and 300 were
found in the same year in the Baltic States, Czechoslovakia, Finland,
and the Netherlands, and below 200 in Italy, Belgium and France.

Protein needs are even more difficult to determine with authority.
Proteins are the chief body-building constituents in the diet, al-
though they can be used also for generation of energy. The Health
Organisation of the League of Nations states that : "In practice, the

[47]

protein intake for all adults should not fall below 1 gramme of pro-
teins per kilogramme of body weight. The protein should be de-
rived from a variety of sources, and it is desirable that a part of the
protein should be of animal origin." * The needs of children, preg-
nant and nursing mothers are higher amounting to 3.5 grammes
per kilogramme of body weight for children 1-3 years of age. Such
estimates, however, do not take into account the fact that the body
requires a great number of different kinds of proteins; the optimum
total intake, it appears, depends also on the proportion of these ele-
ments in the diet. On the whole, modern research places increasing
emphasis on the importance of protein intake sufficient in quantity
and of the right quality. But disregarding the complicated question
as to the most efficient composition of proteins, the average adult
male would require roughly 300 calories derived from proteins a
day, an estimate which, however, leans toward liberality as compared
with actually demonstrated need; and according to certain author-
ities an intake of 150 calories a day should not necessarily be con-
sidered as inadequate It is impossible, also, to say with authority
how large a part of total protein should be in the form of protein of
animal origin. Ya<t populations have and do exist on almost ex-
clusively vegetable diets, and there is little direct evidence to indicate
that a temporary shortage (or even absence) of animal proteins,
except in the form of milk for children, has a serious effect on health.

It is assumed that when proteins constitute some 5-10% of total
calories in a diet adequate in calorics, there is unlikely to be a critical
deficiency of this constituent. When calorie intake is insufficient to
maintain energy equilibrium in the body, proteins are broken down
and used as furl, so that little would be gained by increasing the pro-
portion of proteins in the diet. The relative supply of proteins in the
diet may be illustrated by a few examples.

Cereals, peas, beans and nuts are good sources of vegetable pro-
teins, but potatoes are not nearly so rich a source. One kilogramme
of whole wheat bread contains 97 grammes, or about 390 calories of
proteins, about 500 grammes containing the minimum need for an
adult a day, whilst one kilogramme of potatoes contains only 20
grammes of proteins. Considering subsidiary animal or vegetable
sources of proteins, minimum total requirements seem to be satisfied

1 "Report on the Physiological Bases of Nutrition," drawn up by the Technical
Commission of the Health Committee of the League of Nations, Quarterly
Hullelin of the Health Organisation of the League of Nations, Vol. V, Ex-
tract No. 6.

[48]

when bread rations are adequate, and serious protein deficiency oc-
curs only where the diet contains more potatoes than bread, peas,
beans, etc. Generally speaking, therefore, there is no evidence of
protein deficiency as an independent phenomenon. Where calorie
rations were adequate or nearly adequate, protein deficiencies cannot
be supposed to have been serious, and where total rations were in-
adequate the situation could have been remedied only by an over-all
increase in consumption. Hence, total protein intake seems to repre-

TABLE VIII

CALORIES DERIVED FROM MILK, CREAM, EGGS, CHEESE AND MEAT PER
CONSUMPTION UNIT PER DIEM AND PERCENTAGE DERIVED FROM MILK

Country

Prewar

1941

Calories

Percentage
derived
from milk

Calories

Percentage
derived
from milk

Finland

905

620

Netherlands

665

670

Germany

710

610

Norway

830

145

100

Baltic States

1060

France

550

Belgium

705

445

Czechoslovakia

630

635

Poland

530

275

sent an aspect of calorie intake fluctuating 1 with the general level of
consumption : where calories are adequate the proportion of proteins
seems to suffice to meet demonstrated physiological requirements, if
not optimum requirements.

Considering the proportion of animal proteins in the diet, the
chief problem lies in the milk supply, for it is possible to construct
diets meeting all known nutritional requirements on the basis of
whole-grain bread, fruits, vegetables and milk. Still, it should not be
entirely forgotten that rapid or drastic changes in old dietary habits
may meet great consumer resistance and react unfavourably on indi-

[49]

vidual comfort and morale. Thus, while a decrease in meat and egg
consumption, for instance, may appear relatively inconsequential
when judged by physiological criteria, it renders the diet more dull,
more monotonous and less appetizing. The lack of appetite may in
turn reduce intake and indirectly cause deficiencies both quantitative
and qualitative. The digestion of food depends largely upon a diet
that meets the usual criteria of taste in each country. The table
below has been drawn up to show the number of calories derived

TABIE VIII (Continued)

1942

1943

1944

Calories

Percentage
derived
from milk

Calories

Percentage
derived
from milk

Calories

Percentage
derived
from milk

505

535

660

615

500

570

550

520

360

100

360

100

360

100

490

410

490

465

480

400

420

415

570

520

485

195

from the foods yielding animal calories. It should not be assumed,
however, that all calories in the table are proteins ; some are derived
from fat and carbohydrates. Though the figures are thus subject to
reservations and are at best highly approximate, they suggest the
prevalence of distinct trends during the war years.

The decrease in animal consumption necessitated by the shrinkage
in the total food supply, is unmistakable, as is also the increase in
relative dependence upon milk as the most economical means of con-
verting a given feed supply into animal food fit for human con-
sumption,

[50]

Analysis of the mineral content of the diet is beset with even
greater uncertainties. Mineral salts are found in minute quantities
in most foods, and vary even in the same food with season and local
conditions ; averages for whole food groups, based on standard tables
of mineral content, may mean little or nothing. MoVeover, accepted
standards appear on the whole generous when compared with demon-
strated need, and contain a considerable often apparently arbitrary
margin of safety. Fresh vegetables and fruits which are an impor-
tant source of minerals are generally unrationed, or only partially
rationed. However, of the numerous minerals needed for the growth
and functioning of the body, nutritionists have attached special
importance to calcium, phosphorus and iron, as being the elements
most frequently deficient in actual diets. Calcium and phosphorus
are required for the development of teeth, bones and soft tissue,
and both seem to fulfill certain regulatory functions : thus calcium
seems to regulate heart beat and helps the clotting of the blood.

The richest sources of both these minerals are milk, cheese, eggs,
vegetables and fruit. An adult male is supposed to require a minimum
of 0.45 grammes of calcium per day, but optimum intake may be as
much as 1 gramme a day. The Committee on Food and Nutrition
of the American National Research Council recommends 0.8
grammes, with doses for children and pregnant women relatively
larger. Phosphorus is needed in minimum doses of 0.88 grammes
per adult male a day; and optimum requirements may be 50%
higher. In terms of actual foods, the daily optimum requirement of
calcium of an adult male is contained on an average in 830 grammes
of milk, 1500 grammes of oatmeal, 300 grammes of broccoli leaves,
or 2000 grammes of whole wheat ; maintenance rations would repre-
sent about half of these amounts. Optimum requirement of phos-
phorus is contained in 320 grammes of whole cereals or 1200
grammes of broccoli flower buds.

The richest normal sources of calcium are milk and milk products,
particularly cheese. Hence where milk consumption has been main-
tained at some 400 grammes per consumption unit the minimum re-
quirements are covered from this source alone and extra quantities
have been derived from other sources. Milk and cheese rations
supplying minimum needs appear to be quite common, with the ex-
ception of eastern Europe, the Balkans and Italy. Considering the
further fact that more whole bread was consumed than formerly
and that consumption of vegetables generally increased, there seems
po n priori reason to Assume that the relative supply of calcium <Je-

[51]

creased on an average; while absolute deficiencies naturally devel-
oped where calorie rations were below requirements, there is no
evidence that calcium deficiencies as such were a serious independent
source of malnutrition during the war. The situation with respect
to phosphorus seems to have been similar : milk is relatively a less
rich source of this mineral than of calcium, but whole cereals are
relatively more rich. The need for iron, used in the formation of
hemoglobin in the blood, is less certain, being far greater for women
and children than for adult males. Deficiencies, however, are more
easy to spot and remedy, and there is no evidence that lack of iron,
apart from general calorie deficiencies, has been a serious problem.

The difficulties of analysis of mineral content are multiplied in
the case of vitamins. Vitamins have caught the popular imagination,
and there has been a tendency to overestimate their importance, at
the expense of the sufficiency and composition of the diet as a whole.
Research is still going on as to optimum requirements, but usual
standards appear generous on the whole when compared with demon-
strated need. It is even more difficult to estimate vitamin than min-
eral content of food actually consumed. It should be remembered
that actual content of vitamins is affected to a very appreciable ex-
tent by the length and manner of storage, the method of preparation,
and so on. Only the chief vitamins will be considered in the follow-
ing pages.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) prevents scurvy, and is essential for
growth and maintenance of teeth, bones and the capillary walls. It is
contained chiefly in fruits, berries and vegetables, including potatoes.
Vegetable and potato consumption has increased on an average, and
where calories have been adequate there is reason to assume that in-
take of vitamin C has been on the whole larger than before the war.
This was no doubt true in Germany and Czechoslovakia. Deficiencies
(not unknown even before the war) developed, generally in winter-
time, in countries such as Norway, where fresh vegetables were scarce,
and locally among the poorer sections of the city population in coun-
tries where legal rations failed to supply the necessary calories. But
such deficiencies were counteracted in many countries by distribution
of ascorbic acid to children and by utilization of such naturally rich
sources as wild berries and dried rose hips.

Thiamin (vitamin B or B,) prevents bcri-beri and is essential for
growth, maintenance of appetite, and for the efficient utilization of
dietary carbohydrates. It is common in many foods, both animal and
vegetable (whole cereals, beans and peas are good sources), and the

[52]

general increase in the milling percentage helped to increase the
relative supply in the diet, so that there is no reason to assume that
deficiencies were greater than before the war except in cases where
the calorie level was inadequate. It is impossible here to analyze
accurately deficiencies of other water-soluble vitamins such as ribo-
flavin and niacin, but there is no evidence to show that their lack
presented an independent nutritional problem.

Among the fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin A and its precursors are
important for growth, the maintenance of healthy skin, of vision in
darkness, and of resistance to infection. Most important sources are
milk, butter, eggs and fish-liver oil, on the one hand, and green or
yellow vegetables on the other. Muscle meat, bread, fats and potatoes
are negligible as sources, and there is risk of severe shortages in
countries unable to maintain fairly high levels of consumption of
either dairy products or fresh vegetables, or both. It should be re-
membered, however, that margarine has generally been fortified with
vitamin A (as well as D). As most countries maintained vegetable
consumption at fairly high or even increased levels, there is no reason
to assume that general deficiencies of vitamin A developed, except
locally as a result of general insufficiency in calories. The most
serious situation arose in the urban centers and in wintertime, the
season of lowest supply of both dairy products and vegetables.

Vitamin D prevents rickets and is essential for the growth of
healthy bones and teeth and the utilization of dietary calcium and
phosphorus. It may be formed in the body under the influence of
the ultra-violet rays in sunshine, so that serious deficiencies are likely
to develop chiefly in countries with long sunless winters where the
diet is short of milk, dairy products and fat sea fish. Children in
Germany were supplied free with synthetic vitamin D, and deficien-
cies seem on the whole to have been limited to the low-ration areas.

B. Countries in Which Rationing Was Partial

A number of countries Roumania, Hungary, Serbia, Croatia
and Denmark either did not feel the necessity or lacked the means
of instituting total rationing and therefore left one or more of the
staple foods free, or applied rationing only in a few of the larger
cities. Except for Denmark, however, information reproduced here
is at best highly approximate. In Denmark bread, sugar and fats
were rationed, supplying on an average between 1500 and 1600
calories per normal consumer a day; meat, milk, potatoes and vege-

[53]

tables were free, bringing calorie intake to the level indicated by
individual need. On an average, consumption was well maintained at
or above 3000 calories per consumption unit per day, and the com-
position of the diet was good ; indeed Denmark through the war re-
mained on a diet so high as to be without a parallel in the rest of
Europe.

Food conditions in the remaining countries of the group differed
greatly, even before the war, from those characterizing Denmark.
In these other countries, more predominantly agrarian than Den-
mark, agriculture was to a much higher degree concentrated on cereal
production, and standards of living and dietary levels were relatively
low. Except for parts of Yugoslavia there is no particular reason to
assume that consumption in to to during the war years was much
lower than before the war. Production in general was well maintained
and such fall in yields as occurred in some areas was due chiefly to
unfavourable weather. Livestock numbers were also relatively well
maintained. Exports of food to Germany gradually drained the
supplies available to city populations, although during the war itself
there appeared to be no abnormal food deficiencies in Roumania and
Hungary; in Yugoslavia and Albania actual warfare and the break-
down of communications caused serious starvation in some areas.

C. Summary of Conclusions

Reviewing the evidence for German-dominated Europe presented
in this chapter, it is obvious that conditions varied not only from
country to country but also between the consumer categories in one
and the same country. General conclusions based on broad averages,
therefore, are bound to be to a certain extent misleading, and great
care is needed to avoid over-simplification and false conclusions.

Farmers as a class were in general little affected by rationing;
critical food shortages arose mainly in the urban areas whose pop-
ulations had to carry far more than their proportionate share of the
fall in national food supplies. The average level of consumption de-
pended on (a) the size of the official rations ; (b) the extent to which
they were made available in the shops; (r) the purchasing power of
incomes; and (d) additions from non-rationed sources, including
the black market. It is impossible to give strict numerical estimates
of these factors except for (a). Still, such evidence as has become
available to date seems to indicate that contributions from the black
market generally exceeded deficiencies caused by (b) and (r).

[54]

Therefore it seems permissible to draw from the data under (a)
certain broad conclusions at least as to the relative position of the
urban population in the different countries.

According to these criteria it appears that the calorie level was
maintained at or slightly below 3000 calories a consumption unit a
day in Denmark, Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia (the Protec-
torate of Bohemia-Moravia), Roumania and Hungary. This level
was on the whole slightly lower than pre-war, but was not physio-
logically deficient. In Belgium, Finland, the Netherlands and Nor-
way, rations apparently represented some 2300-2800 calories per
consumption unit a day. These figures are lower than pre-war and
as much as 20% below normal requirements, but they do not on the
whole indicate a critical shortage of calories, though more or less
severe partial shortages occurred, particularly among the city people
too poor to patronize the black market. Tn the Baltic States, Slovakia,
France and Italy rations seem to have represented between 1500 and
2300 calories or thereabouts, to which were added black-market
provisions, particularly important in the case of France and Italy.
Where such additions were not forthcoming in any significant
amount, however, the rations were too low to permit full working
capacity and health. Tn Poland, Greece, parts of Yugoslavia and
Albania distribution was very irregular; consumption fell for shorter
or longer periods even in some agricultural regions to levels of semi-
starvation; in some periods, especially in Greece in 1942, famine
prevailed.

The absence, however, of statistically measurable calorie deficien-
cies does not imply that the diet was adequate in other respects. It is
natural that in wartime the struggle to obtain enough calories to pre-
vent starvation tends to overshadow the less urgent problem of ob-
taining a diet so composed as to maintain also optimum health and
efficiency. But when wartime diets such as those described above are
compared with standards of physiological requirements, it is impor-
tant to remember that diets in all respects adequate in nutritional
composition even in peacetime were the exception rather than the
rule. Tn Europe fully adequate diets were to be found only in certain
Scandinavian and northwestern regions, so that considering the situa-
tion of the Continent as a whole, it would appear that the deteriora-
tion in the composition of the diet was less marked than is often
assumed. Broadly speaking, administrators had profited from the
teachings of modern nutritional science, and avoided many mistakes
committed during the first world war.

[55]

In the first group of countries enumerated above the diet became
gradually more and more vegetable in composition. But since milk
consumption was fairly well maintained, it is not certain that the
nutritional efficiency of the diet decreased. Although the diet (except
in Denmark) contained less fat, meat and eggs than is consistent with
variety and palatability, and this shift gave rise to considerable dis-
comfort, there is no evidence that the diet became much poorer in
essential minerals and vitamins than before the war; indeed, the in-
take of these elements, owing to the increased consumption of vege-
tables, seems in some cases actually to have increased.

The quality of the diet in the second group of countries enumerated
above was not greatly different from that in the first. But as the
number of calories available per consumer was lower and less reg-
ular, and the distribution less uniform, it is natural that there devel-
oped a number of absolute shortages, not only of calories, but also
of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Serious deficiencies, however,
were on the whole limited to the poorer sections of the urban pop-
ulations. As one moved from this middle category to the third group
of countries, mainly in eastern and southern Europe, the problem
of quality became almost completely subordinated to that of quantity.
The diet became almost wholly vegetable, and the calorie intake was
so low as to give rise to absolute deficiencies of almost all essential
nutrients. Insufficiency of calories became synonymous with mal-
nutrition, and so long as the calorie intake could not be lifted to
more adequate levels, a discussion of the quality of the diet would
be more or less academic.

II. The USS.R.

Rationing data comparable with those discussed above are not
available for the U.S.S.R. The German invasion resulted in a severe
curtailment of the Russian crop production. The occupied territories
comprised some of the richest agricultural districts usually yielding
a surplus to the rest of the country. In 1941 and 1942 the country
lost its best yielding winter wheat belt, its principal sugar beet re-
gions, and much of its oil seed area ; l it has been estimated that, on
a per caput basis, grains harvested in 1943 did not exceed 80% of
the pre-war normal. 2 Such a deficit could not be covered by a mere

1 World Food Situation, 1946, page 103.

2 The Food Situation in Soviet Russia, 1943/45, World Grain Review and Out-
look, 1945, by Helen C Farnsworth and V. P. Timoshenko. Food Research Insti-
tute, Stanford University, California.

[56]

reduction of grains used for feeding purposes, in spite of a great
reduction in livestock numbers, 1 and the reduction of grain supplies
affected diets the more severely as it has been estimated that normally
at least 75% of the calories for human consumption were derived
from cereals. 2 Neither pre-war stocks nor Icnd-leasc imports sufficed
to make up for the deficiencies of home-produced supplies.

The decrease in the supplies of crops and animal products in the
free portion of the U.S.S.R. was partly compensated for by potatoes
and vegetable products, the supply of which was larger than usual, 3
and it is reported that the majority of people existed chiefly on a
diet of black bread, boiled potatoes and cabbage.

The system of distribution, however, was less egalitarian in the
U.S.S.R. than in most other countries. Rationing covered the staple
foods, and the rations were sold at fixed prices within reach of ordi-
nary wage earners. In addition there existed a legal free market in
which privileged groups able to afford the very substantial prices
could employ their superior purchasing power in acquiring extra
necessities and luxuries. The food supplies on the open market were
derived chiefly from the share in kind received by collective farmers
after the division of the harvest. 4 Ordinary rationed consumers were
divided into four categories : manual workers, office workers, adult
dependents and children under 13. The following table shows the
per caput weekly rations of bread and cereals in 1 ( >44 in grammes : r '

Bread Cereals

Manual workers 4535-5245 455

Office workers 3145-3855 340

Adult dependents 2100 225

Children 2100 285

For the same period Gruliow and Lederer 6 estimate that the aver-

1 These losses included 7 million horses out of a total 12 million in the invaded
territory; 17 million cattle out of 34 million; 20 million hops, 27 million sheep
and goats, and 110 million head of poultry Cf. World Food Situation, 1946.

2 M. K. Bennet, "Wheat in National Diets," Wheat Studies, October 1941

8 According to information in Bolshevik (March 1944 No. 5) quoted by Timo-
shenko, the 1943 potato acreage under Soviet control was 30% larger than in 1938
and vegetable acreage 80% larger. Yields were satisfactory.

4 Open market prices were 800% to 15,000% above the ration prices. Cf. Russia
Fights Famine, by Leo Gruliow and Sidonie K. Lederer, Russian War Relief
Inc., New York 1944.

5 Nenc Ziirchcr Zeitnng, February 22nd, 1944, quoted by Timoshenko.

9 Op. cit.

[57]

age Russian diet based on both free and rationed foods added up to
the following quantities per week per head :

Grammes per week Calories per day

Bread 3175 1180

Cereals 590 295

Meat 400 150

Potatoes 1050 120

Sugar 85 45

Vegetables 800 40

Cheese Irregular

Total 1830

According to this estimate the calorie intake per caput was about
1800 a day, higher for workers and lower for children and de-
pendents. 1 These rations were about as high as in Germany in the
same year; but they were nutritionally of an inferior composition,
containing almost no milk, milk products, fats, or eggs, and only
insignificant quantities of meat.

II T. The United Kingdom and the European Neutrals

The situation in this group of countries was throughout the war
more favourable than in Continental Europe and the U.S.S.R. The
greater availability and elasticity of supply was reflected in the sys-
tems of rationing, which were more liberal and more flexible than
those on the Continent. In the United Kingdom rationing arose from
the necessity of husbanding shipping space needed for war imports
and from certain restrictions on the supply of foreign currency. But
throughout the war the supply of food remained adequate and it was
possible to maintain stable rations. The British system was charac-
terized also by greater adaptability to individual needs and less differ-
entiation than on the Continent. In fact, Britain maintained through-
out the war an unlimited total consumption of calories of vegetable
origin, though certain vegetables and fruits were scarce and others
normally imported (e.g. oranges and bananas) were almost unob-
tainable. But all consumers could buy as much bread and potatoes

1 Gruliow and Lederer estimate that "the Russian wartime diet provides about
1600 calories a day . . . and 90% of the calories are derived from bread, cereals
and potatoes." The 1800 calorie estimate above includes food purchased in the
open market.

[58]

as they liked, and the authorities could construct rationing with the
chief aim of maintaining for all a diet adequate in nutritional ele-
ments other than calories.

In the interest of economy it was necessary to reduce consumption
of foods requiring much shipping space, land and labour in favour
of those requiring less. Thus the policy was to increase home pro-
duction of bulky foodstuffs cereals, potatoes, vegetables and milk
and use the shipping space for imports of concentrated foods such as
fats and meat. Milk consumption, in fact, increased by some 28% (in
1943) compared with pre-war. Land under wheat increased by 82%
and all cereal crops by 86% ; potato crops increased by 116%. Ra-
tioning then included protein foods, milk and fats. The need for
quality foods varies less between different groups of consumers than
does the need for energy foods. For this reason it was possible to
adopt a uniform basic ration of the foods referred to above. Meat,
bacon, cheese, fats, sugar and jam were rationed at so much per head
of the population (cf. Appendix) ; these rations, together with the
free foods, were adequate to meet average physiological require-
ments. The introduction of whole bread and the fortification of
margarine with vitamins A and D also served to safeguard the
nutritional adequacy of the ordinary diet. Nevertheless, it was recog-
nized that the basic rationing system was not capable of taking into
account all the requirements of special groups, and their extra needs
were met through a number of special schemes superimposed upon
it. The most important of these schemes were:

(1 ) Communal feeding. While on the Continent workers engaged
in heavy or night work received extra individual rations of certain
foods and in Germany workers had to surrender coupons to obtain
meals at industrial canteens Great Britain adopted the policy of
leaving needed or useful additions to the diet outside the ration.
Communal feeding took the following chief forms: (a) industrial
canteens in factories and at the mines and docks; (fr) school can-
teens for school children; (c) "British Restaurants" for the public.

Industrial canteens were introduced early in the war. Employers
of 250 persons or more were required to operate canteens in their
establishments, but even smaller employers could be required to set
them up where special circumstances made it desirable. In some cases
a number of smaller firms pooled their resources and operated a
single canteen. In other cases the workers had the use of near-by
''British Restaurants."

Some school canteens were in operation before the war, but their

[59]

number was greatly expanded and it was the policy to supply all
school children with one well-balanced meal a day. The Board of
Education paid a minimum of 70% and a maximum of 95% of the
cost to local authorities supplying- these meals. In case of need they
were supplied to the children at reduced cost or free.

"British Restaurants" were sponsored by the Ministry of Food
with the assistance of the local authorities. They arose originally as
an emergency programme, but became gradually a fixed part of war-
time living. Their object was to serve a hot nutritious meal at about
I/- a head, which is a price within the reach of every worker. These
restaurants were open to the general public, but many local author-
ities gave priority to workers during the rush hours. By the end of
the war more than 2000 "British Restaurants" were in operation,
serving on an average about 600,000 meals a day. It was the policy
of the Ministry to encourage their establishment in areas where
there were many small factories without independent canteens.

The Ministry of Food granted the canteens and the "British
Restaurants" the supplies necessary to provide the right kind of
meals. School canteens were registered as priority catering establish-
ments and received such special allowances as were required. Can-
teens and catering establishments feeding industrial workers likewise
received higher allowances of rationed foods than ordinary cafes,
hotels and restaurants. The canteens were classified in two categories,
the first catering to heavy workers, the second to ordinary workers.
The first received a meat allowance double that of ordinary establish-
ments, the second one and a half times as much. Increased allowances
of sugar, butter, marmalade, margarine, cooking fat, cheese and
preserves were granted to both categories, and to the "British
Restaurants" entitled to priority supplies of unrationed foods such
as cake, cocoa powder, starch, food powders, coffee essence and
shredded suets. 1

(2) Distribution schemes. Children of pre-school age as well as
nursing and pregnant mothers did not generally benefit from the
communal feeding These categories needing foods rich in first-class
proteins, minerals and vitamins, received special rationing cards
which entitled them to extra quantities of protective foods: milk,

1 The feeding of miners presented certain difficulties, but much progress was
made in providing pit-head canteens at the larger and "Snack Bars" at the
smaller mines. The programme for feeding miners envisaged the setting tip of
856 canteens to provide meals for 680,500 men, or 98% of all miners in the coun-
try. Seamen and certain classes of fishermen obtained rations on the liberal scale
laid down in the Merchant Shipping Act.

[60]

eggs, and certain fruit and fruit juices. The National Vitamin
Scheme granted either free or at low cost a supply of essential vita-
mins to those who needed them most. The best-known and most
important of these schemes, however, related to milk. Children
under one year of age had a priority right to two pints of milk a day,
and nursing or expectant mothers and children 2-5 years of age of
1 pint a day at 2 d. a pint. The milk was supplied free if the parents'
income fell below a certain minimum. Children of school age re-
ceived milk under the "milk-in-schools" scheme inaugurated before
the war; this system was extended to include, in principle, all school
children. The ration of non-priority consumers varied with the
season of the year ; in winter the allocation varied between 2 and 3
pints weekly. In the case of eggs priority consumers received 4
times as many as ordinary consumers, and the price was kept down
by means of subsidies.

(3) Point Rationing. A third means of directing the distribution
of a number of foods which though desirable are not essential addi-
tions to the basic diet was the ' 'point-rationing scheme" introduced
in 1941. It was employed particularly in the case of commodities
the supply of which was too small or too erratic to permit of specific
rationing. Each consumer received a card containing a certain num-
ber of points, and the commodities were "priced" not only in ordi-
nary currency but also in points. The system rendered it possible to
include or exclude foods as the situation demanded, and through the
double mechanism of price and point changes demand could be
steered in the direction desired. At the same time, the system left
a considerable latitude of choice to the consumer. By an empirical
use of point and price changes the Ministry of Food was able to
introduce and popularize food items often obtained through lend-
lease which were previously unknown to the British public or were
in little demand.

It would have been useless, however, to lay down a theoretically
perfect system of rationing if a part of the population did not possess
the income necessary to purchase the legal rations. The British sys-
tem, therefore, which aimed at establishing a healthful minimum diet
for all, required an intimate co-ordination of price policy with social
policy in general. We have mentioned above the milk distribution
scheme and the system of school lunches, distribution of fruit juices,
etc., designed to provide essential foods to special categories of con-
sumers ; the canteens and "British Restaurants" were also designed
to be within the reach of all. But in fact the policy went further

[61]

than this. The Ministry of Food had virtual monopoly powers over
the distribution of all imported and most home-grown foods. It fixed
the price of essential foods to the consumer according to considera-
tions of social policy. Prices were stabilized at low levels, and the
difference between the cost of production and/or imports was met
by the Treasury from subsidies or from profits earned on the sale
of other foods. When the policy of price stabilization was introduced
in the beginning of the war subsidies were already being paid at the
rate of about 50 million a year. At the end of March 1945 they
were running at a yearly rate of 225 million.

ESTIMATED FOOD SUPPLIES MOVING INTO CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM, PRE-WAR AND 1944

Grammes per week per caput

Percentage change

Pre-war

1944

Milk and milk products

334.1

+ 26

Meat

1189.8

-19

Poultry

266.9

-26

Eggs

212.8

+ 2

Oil and fats

397.8

-16

Sugar, etc.

824.3

-31

Potatoes and sweet potatoes

1544.0

+ 61

Pulses and nuts

82 9

-17

Tomatoes and citrus fruit

408.2

-31

Other fruit

815.6

-30

Vegetables

1290.1

+44

Grain products

1840.6

+ 17

SOURCE: Food Consumption Levrh in the United States, Canada and the Untied Kit
Committee set up by the Combined Food Board, December 1944.

. Second Report of a Special

Owing to the diversity of the food distribution system it is not
possible to calculate the size of family consumption. Figures, how-
ever, are available showing the food supply per head of the civilian
population in 1943 and 1944, figures which can be accqrted as fairly
representative for the war period as a whole.

The average consumption of milk, potatoes, vegetables and bread
increased, whilst consumption of sugar, animal products (other than
milk) fats and imported fruits declined. The total effect of these
changes on the nutritive composition of the national diet is shown
in the table below, as estimated by the Combined Food Board.

It would appear from the table that calorie consumption decreased
some 2/o ; this decrease, however, is no doubt more apparent than
real for the entry into the armed forces of a large number of men

[62]

ESTIMATED DAILY SUPPLY PER CAPUT OF NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS
AVAILABLE FOR CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, PRE-
WAR AND 1944

Percentage

Unit

Pre-war

1944

change

Calories

No.

2987

2923

- 2

Proteins

Grammes

80 3

87.4

+ 9

Fat

129 1

116.6

-10

Carbohydrates

376.3

381 2

+ 1

Calcium

Milligrammes

683

1037

+ 52

Iron

12 4

16 34

+31

Vitamin A

Int'l units

3831

3773

- 2

Vitamin C
Thiamin

Milligrammes

101.3

1.17

123 3
2

+ 22
4-70

Riboflavin

1.56

2.1

4-34

Niacin

17.5

19.7

4-13

SOURCE: Food Consumption Levels in the Untted States, Canada and the United Kingdom, etc.

in their most active age obviously decreased the physiological re-
quirements of the remainder. The food supply of some 2900 calories
a day per head (even allowing for waste in distribution and prepara-
tion) is more than adequate to bring consumption per consumption
unit above the 3000-a-day standard of normal requirements. There
was a moderate decrease in consumption of fats (and animal pro-
teins) ; but the intake of minerals and vitamins increased sharply
owing mainly to the larger consumption of potatoes and vegetables
and the increased milling extraction of cereals. In general, therefore,
the level of nutrition enjoyed by the civilian population was better
than before the war, which, of course, does not exclude a somewhat
decreased standard in the highest income groups. With the possible
exception of vitamin A and riboflavin, the diet met intake require-
ments based on the full ''recommended dietary allowances" of the
United States National Research Council ; it met in all respects the
Council's ''average restricted dietary allowances." "But," adds the
Special Joint Committee, "the position may be marginal, however, in
several instances, even on a restricted basis, since the supply figures
make no allowance for the substantial losses of some nutrients, nota-
bly ascorbic acid and thiamin, which occur in preparation and cook-
ing." The chief shortcoming of the nutritionally improved national
wartime diet has been monotony and lack of palatability, rendering
it in many cases difficult to maintain sufficient individual appetite;
but the general improvement in public health in spite of the wartime

[63]

stresses in other respects testifies to the success of the British food
distribution system. 1

Sweden, which before the war was almost self -sufficient in food
and enjoyed a high level of consumption, did not suffer any serious
food shortages. Unrationed milk, potatoes and (most of the time)
some free meat and fish, served as budget regulators permitting the
population to satisfy their total needs for calories in a nutritionally
well-balanced manner. The ratio of animal to vegetable foods was on
the whole little disturbed and remained not far from the high level
of 40:60. The foods rationed were distributed according to the
German pattern of specific and differential rationing; indeed rations
of bread, fats and meat were more highly differentiated than in any
other country. Little attempt seems to have been made to utilize the
relatively favourable supply situation, as was done in the Anglo-
Saxon countries, by introducing point rationing and other devices
intended to safeguard consumer's free choice.

The supply situation in Switzerland was somewhat tighter than in
Sweden, the former country being ordinarily more dependent on im-
ported food. Bread was rationed, and of the staple foods potatoes
alone remained free throughout the war. On the other hand, ration-
ing was gradually rendered more and more flexible by the introduc-
tion of ingenious modifications of the German model. For instance,
in the summer of 1943, when it had been found that the lower in-
come groups could not always afford to buy the full rations of the
more expensive foods, consumers were given the choice between two
alternative rationing plans : A and B, Plan B containing relatively
more cheap but equally nutritive foods than Plan A. Card B gave
the right to larger rations of bread, cereals, milk and cheese, but to
no meat, and to smaller fat rations. Moreover, coupons for certain
foods could be legally substituted, at specified rates of exchange, for
coupons of other foods. Thus, 250 points of meat gave the right to
100 grammes of cheese or 100 grammes of peas, beans, etc.; 100
grammes of butter could be exchanged for 200 grammes of cheese;
and one litre of milk gave the right to 100 grammes of cheese. These
modifications, coupled with the exchange privilege, invested the Swiss
rationing system with a flexibility otherwise unknown outside of
point rationing; it limited the need, inherent in specific rationing, of
differentiation by consumer category.

Conditions in Ireland did not necessitate rationing of more than
a few imported foods, and in Portugal domestic food production

1 Cf. Chapter VI below.

[64]

(which before the war rendered the country 90% self-sufficient in
cereals and 100% in fats) remained at or above pre-war levels up
to 1943, when serious drought reduced crops and necessitated ration-
ing of bread. By the end of the war consumption was running at
about 95% of pre-war, but inadequate administrative controls caused
the city dwellers to suffer the whole impact of decreased supplies.
Spain, before the Civil War, was almost self-sufficient in food,
though, it is true, at a low standard of consumption. As an effect of
the Civil War, area sown and productivity were decreased to such
an extent that Spain became dependent upon imports of staple foods.
Total supplies, according to the estimates of the United States
Department of Agriculture, corresponded by the end of the war to
some 2300 calories a person a day, as compared with some 2650
before the Civil War. The reduction, however, was unequally distrib-
uted, falling particularly heavily on urban consumers. Their official
rations (not always available) corresponded to something less than
1200 calories per head, but unrationed foods (meat, dairy products,
fruits and vegetables) and additions from the black market may per-
haps have permitted an urban consumption of about 2000 calories,
i.e., for groups able to purchase enough of these relatively expensive
foods.

IV. Rest of the World

The Americas, New Zealand and Australia, ordinarily surplus pro-
ducers of food, did not suffer from general shortages during the
war. If these countries rationed some foods, the reasons were differ-
ent from those applying to Europe. In the United States after Pearl
Harbor, the need for rationing arose, in spite of expansion of total
food production, as a result of fuller employment and higher wages
of the employed persons, coupled with an additional demand from
the armed forces, and for lend-lease and other exports. In order to
prevent an undue rise in the prices of animal products the absolute
and relative demand for which increased as a result of the rising
purchasing power and also to maintain a balanced agricultural
production, meats, butter, cheese and fats were rationed, as well as
certain products which happened to be in short supply, such as sugar
and coffee. Sugar, indeed, was the first commodity to be rationed
and is the only one which at the moment of writing remains so.
Coffee rationing was introduced as a measure to save shipping space,
and was abandoned in July 1943. Canned goods were also rationed.

[65]

not because of a lack of food materials, but as a means of relieving
pressure on the canning industry and reserving supplies for the
armed forces and for lend-lease. There was no need to ration energy
foods, fresh fruit, vegetables or milk (though the sale of cream was
restricted) ; the free foods alone were then sufficient to secure to
everybody the needed calories and the chief elements of a sound
nutrition. Hence there was little need for a differential rationing,
and animal foods and canned goods were distributed by an egali-
tarian point system. Each person (in addition to sugar coupons) re-
ceived two sets of points: red and blue. The red points were used
to buy fats (including butter), cheese, meat and meat products. Each
commodity was "priced" in points as well as in money. Consumers
were left with a wide choice of commodities and could plan their
purchases with due regard to individual needs and preferences. More-
over, one could by choosing margarine instead of butter, less choice
cuts of meat instead of steak, and so on, considerably vary the total
quantities purchased of both fat and meat. This arrangement had the
advantage of a differential rationing without its disadvantages; total
demand was kept down whilst rationing interfered but little with
the consumer's free choice. Families were favoured by this arrange-
ment, owing to the relatively smaller calorie need of children, but
meals in restaurants remained free throughout. Similarly, the blue
points gave the right to buy canned goods of different kinds, the

APPARENT CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR FOOD COMMODITIES

193S/39 AND 1942/45

(Pounds per year per head)

Average

1945

Percentage

1935-39

1942

1943

1944

(Preliminary)

change '

1935/39-1945

Grains

208 8

221.9

226.4

225.2

228.2

+ 9.3

Potatoes

130

118

133

126

130

Sugar

96.5

86.2

80.3

89.0

-24

Meat and meat products

(incl. poultry)

146.1

163.1

167.7

176.5

159.1

+ 8.9

Fats (incl. butter)

48.0

47.9

45.7

44.7

41.5

-14

Milk

801

839

764

788

793

- 1

Cheese

5.5

6.3

5.0

5.7

+ 4

Eggs

37.3

38.9

43.1

43.9

48.8

+31

Fruits (fresh)

138.5

129.8

120.9

144.8

146

+ 5

Other fruit and fruit juices

25.7

29.6

27.4

34.0

+32.3

Fresh vegetables

235

251

236

254

264

+ 12

Canned and frozen vege-

tables

31.5

39.7

34.4

35.1

+39.7

SOURCE: United States Department of Agriculture: The National Food Situation, October 1945-

[66]

"point price" of which (as was also true for meat and fats), being
changed from one rationing period to another. The nature of the
point-ration system renders it impossible to determine the actual
size of individual rations; but the table above shows the develop-
ment of the actual consumption per head of the civilian population
of the most important food groups.

This table shows that except for sugar and fats (purchased as
such) the wartime diet was as high or higher than in peacetime.
Increases are particularly noticeable in regard to fruit, vegetables,
eggs and meat all foods of high nutritive value. In consequence
the American diet in war came to be higher in energy value, and
nutritionally better composed than in peace. The table below
analyzes the composition of the civilian consumption pre-war and
1944, per capita per day.

Calories were well above 3000 a day per head and exceeded the
1944 average by some 4%. The intake of animal proteins, already
high in peacetime, had increased by 14%, and total fat intake (as
opposed to fats purchased as such) increased by 8%. The intake of
essential minerals and vitamins had very substantially increased; the
diet met in all particulars intake requirements based on the full Na-
tional Research Council (United States) "recommended dietary
allowances" of nutrients.

The situation in Canada was not greatly different from that in
the United States. Rationing covered sugar, meat, fats, tea and
coffee, but meat rationing was discontinued in February 1944. The

ESTIMATED DAILY SUPPLY PER CAPUT OE NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS
AVAILABLE FOR THE UNITED STATES, PRE-WAR AND 1944

Item

Unit

Pre-war

1944

Percentage
change

Calories

No.

3236

3367

+ 4

Animal Protein

Gm.

51.0

58.3

+ 14

Vegetable Protein

37.8

41.3

+ 9

Fats

129.0

139.4

+ 8

Carbohydrates

429.7

428.1

Calcium

Mg.

885

1017

+ 15

Iron

14 2

18.7

+32

Vitamin A

LU.

6804

7389

+ 9

Ascorbic Acid

Mg.

105.4

122.2

+ 16

Thiamin

1.77

2.61

+47

Ribofiavin

1.97

2.61

+32

Niacin

15.7

221.4

+36

SOURCE: Food Consumption Levels in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. The Combined Food Board:
Washington, 1944.

[67]

figures below show estimated yearly supplies moving into civilian
consumption in pounds per caput pre-war and 1944.

Except for sugar, consumption of important foods remained
fairly stable or increased. Meat consumption was up by near

ESTIMATED FOOD SUPPLIES MOVING INTO CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION
IN CANADA, PRE-WAR AND 1944

(Pounds per year per head)

Pre-war

1944

Percentage
change

Grains

206.9

221.8

+ 7

Potatoes (including sweet)

195.9

190.2

- 3

Sugar

103.3

89 6

-13

Meats, game and fish

145 4

185.0

4-28

Fats (including butter)

41.2

42 8

+ 4

Milk

58.1

69.5

+20

Eggs

30.5

36.8

4-21

Vegetables and fruits

(including nuts arid pulses)

217

263.2

4-21

SOURCE: Fvod Consumption Levrh. etc. The Combined Food Board 1 Washington, 1944.

milk, eggs, fruit and vegetables by about 20%. The table below
analyzes the nutritional composition of the diet per head per day
of the civilian population.

The quality of the diet was uniformly improved. Calories were up
8%, animal proteins 23%, and most minerals and vitamins increased
between 15 and 30%. The only point on which there is question as

ESTIMATED DAILY SUPPLY PER CAPUT OF NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS
AVAILABLE FOR CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION IN CANADA, PRE-WAR AND 1944

Item

Unit

Pre-war

1944

Percentage
change

Calories

No.

3182

3435

+ 8

Animal Protein

Cm.

50.9

62.5

4-23

Vegetable Protein

39.3

43.1

+ 10

Fats

123.7

141.3

4-14

Carbohydrates

426 9

434 8

4- 2

Calcium

Mg.

879

1050

4-19

Iron

15.0

19 7

4-31

Vitamin A

LU.

6162

7154

4-16

Ascorbic Acid

Mg.

60.1

69.9

4-16

Thiamin

1 96

2.48

4-27

Riboflavin

1 93

2.33

4-21

Niacin

17.4

21.5

+24

SOURCE: Food Consumption Levels, etc. The Combined Food Board: Washington, 1944.

[68]

to the adequacy of the diet in terms of the "recommended dietary
allowances" of the United States National Research Council is
ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

The Australian diet ordinarily is among the highest in the world
and was little if at all affected by the war until 1942. Tea rationing
was introduced in March of that year, followed by sugar rationing
in August. Sugar was rationed at one pound weekly per head. Butter
rationing was introduced in June 1943 as a result of the necessity of
making increased exports available to the southwest Pacific war zone
and of maintaining supplies to the United Kingdom. Rations were
fixed at about 225 grammes weekly. Similarly, the increased demand
for the armed services and exports necessitated meat rationing from
January 1944. Meats were divided into four groups which were so
arranged that the average quantity of meat which could be bought
for two coupons was 2 l / pounds, or about 1 kilogramme. As all
persons over 9 years of age had two and children under 9 one coupon
weekly, rations averaged 2j4 and \y% pounds, respectively. Sausage,
edible offals, poultry, fish, cheese, eggs and bacon were not rationed,
but some of these items became scarce. By and large, however, the
Australian diet remained ample in quantity and high in quality. The
same applied, broadly speaking, in New Zealand, where tea, sugar
and meat were rationed.

Conditions in the Middle East varied considerably from one area
to another, and conditions prevented the introduction of general
systems of rationing. Governments attempted on the whole to
control procurement and prices of grains, which, together with
livestock products derived mainly from sheep and goats, were the
mainstay of the diet. In normal times the countries in this area were
self-sufficient in food, with the chief exception of Palestine. Egypt
remained on the whole self-sufficient and counteracted the reduced
yield per acre of cereals (due to lack of fertilizers, etc.) by a re-
duction of cotton acreage and an increase in cereal acreage. Turkey,
normally self-sufficient in food, had in fact a not inconsiderable ex-
port surplus except for the years 1941 and 1942, when crops were
short owing to unfavourable weather. A certain shortage was notice-
able in the urban centres, however, during the bad crop years ne-
cessitating rationing of bread. As already indicated, Palestine de-
pended largely on imported food, a dependency which, in spite of
efforts to grow more food, was not decreased; population increase
between 1935 and the present period was exceptionally heavy, amount-
ing to not less than 45%. Cultural, social and economic differences

[69]

between population groups rendered a uniform scheme of rationing
impracticable, and the differentiation of systems in this relatively
small area affords a good illustration of the administrative problems
to be overcome in introducing consumer rationing in Eastern and
Middle-Eastern countries. All persons were subject to restriction;
the large urban conglomerations comprising in 1943 approximately
650,000 people were rationed directly on the "point system" ; the
rest were rationed indirectly on the basis of food allocations to each
town, village or settlement. Both systems, while differing in com-
position, were correlated as to total quantities allocated. The figures
below show the average consumption per head for all categories of
consumers for important foods in grammes per week in 1937/39
and in 1943:

Flour Macaroni Sugar Jam Halaiua Meats
1937-39 1980 10 350 15 10 315

1943 1715 15 185 20 15 11.9

Iraq increased food production during the war; paddy rice pro-
duction, for instance, increased from 180,000 to 320,000 short tons,
and exportable surplus of barley reached 200,000 to 300,000 tons a
year; a surplus of livestock was also available. Iran, normally self-
sufficient in food, used to show exportable surplus. In the first years
of war crop failures created food shortages in the urban centres,
but the situation gradually returned to nearly normal.

French North Africa usually exports food, mainly wheat and
wine, and continued to do so until 1942; since that time a series of
crop failures has necessitated considerable imports. Consumers in
towns who were obliged to live on the rations suffered from con-
siderable shortages.

Among the countries in the Far East, India was normally almost
self-sufficient in food, imports amounting to only about 3% of the
total cereal production. The diet was almost exclusively vegetable in
origin, and in the absence of a food buffer constituted by rational
animal husbandry, some areas at least were normally on the verge
of famine; malnutrition was the rule rather than the exception in
the whole country. Primitive agriculture cannot easily provide for
rapid population increase amounting in the case of India to about
five million a year and a relatively small disturbance either in supply
or in distribution can easily lead to disastrous results. The vast ma-
jority of the population are subsistence farmers living on some^ 50

[70]

million small holdings ; a comparatively insignificant decrease in de-
liveries from each farm may drastically decrease the supply of food
available for the city population. Several factors contributed to upset
this precarious balance in 1942. The normal rice import of about a
million tons a year from Burma, French Indo-China and Siam
was cut off. While total harvest was close to average, political un-
rest, fear of invasion and inflation clogged up the system of dis-
tribution, leading to withholding and hoarding of supplies by farm-
ers and speculators. The result was the Bengal famine in 1943,
reported to have caused the death of about a million and a half per-
sons. Famine conditions prevailed in the summer and early autumn,
particularly in Calcutta and other large towns, to which destitute
villagers and farm labourers streamed in search of relief. With the
aid of certain imports of cereals, the crisis had passed by the end of
1943. The famine, however, had far-reaching consequences in re-
spect of future food policy. The Government of India offered a basic
food plan according to which the Central Government assumed
formal responsibility for food distribution, rationing of cereals was
introduced in the towns, and attempts were made to expand produc-
tion by increasing the total area under cultivation, diverting land
from non-food to food crops, increasing the practice of double-
cropping, extending the use of fertilizers, increasing the supply of
irrigation water, and encouraging the use of improved seeds. Little
progress was made, however, except for diverting land from cotton
and jute to food production, particularly millet; some success was
experienced as regards extension of double-cropping. These measures
roughly sufficed to produce foods for domestic needs, but the country
remained unable to care for her expanding population in case of even
a moderate decrease in crops.

The food situation in China, as in India, is characterized by the
strong population pressure on available resources. People exist on a
low dietary level, mainly of local products, and a crop failure or
breakdown of communications results in local famine. It would ap-
pear, however, that the war affected food production less than could
have been feared. The bulk of food was consumed near the areas of
production, and there was no shortage of agricultural labour. Indeed,
inflation seems even to have stimulated agricultural production, and
in Free China the government encouraged production by new irriga-
tion schemes, more extensive double-cropping, insect control, dis-
tribution of improved seeds, etc. It should not be overlooked, how-
ever, that there arose severe local and temporary shortages as a result

[71]

of military operations and breakdowns of the system of transporta-
tion. The greatest shortages apparently occurred in 1943 in the
Honan Province as a consequence of drought and military requisi-
tioning. Later shortages occurred in Kwangsi, Kweichow and Honan
in connection with Japanese operations.

Japan was normally an importer of food. During the war domestic
production and imports tapered off. Domestic food production at the
end of the war was perhaps 20-25% of pre-war and imports have
almost ceased. The diet per head before the war can be estimated at
about 2300 calories a day; by 1944 consumption was perhaps some
2200 calories, of which some 1600 were derived from domestic pro-
duction. The situation is now further complicated by the difficulty of
distribution, with the greater part of the reduction in consumption
falling as usual upon the urban population. While farmers may con-
sume at the old rate, city rations have fallen very considerably, and
may now supply less than 1000 calories a day a person.

With the exception of the Argentine all countries of South Amer-
ica arc on the balance importers of food. But during the war domestic
production continued to grow, and some imports continued to be
available ; hence consumption was not greatly decreased and rationing
was not found necessary.

CHAPTER III
THE POST-WAR FOOD CRISIS

WHILE the war was still in progress it was believed in many quarters
that once hostilities ceased, food would flow abundantly from the
surplus to the deficit areas, and that food habits would soon revert
to "normal." Historical experience, however, has shown that the
aftermath of war is often almost as bitter as war itself, and the
Second World War has proved no exception. The post-war food
crisis cannot be intelligently considered without some reference to the
wider aspects of the food problem.

Even in normal times it is difficult to compile reliable statistics of
world food production, the basic estimates being in many cases noth-
ing more than approximations if not outright guesses subject to a
wide margin of error. The accuracy of the basic data is not likely to
have improved during the protracted war just ended. On the con-
trary, in many countries the ensuing disorganization of the civil ad-
ministration has rendered the collection of precise statistics extremely
hazardous, if not impossible. Especially in those countries where food
shortages are most critical and where progressive inflation makes
producers unwilling to part with their goods, farmers have perfected
the devices of withholding supplies from their governments. Finally,
in competing for the scant post-war supplies deficit countries may be
inclined to paint their domestic crop situation in colours too dark
rather than too bright. These reservations should be duly kept in
mind in considering such estimates at best highly approximate as
are available.

According to a report by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, 1 the calorie value of world food production has declined by
about 5 per cent from the average just before the war; however, if
allowance is made for population increase, the per caput production
has declined by about 12 per cent. As will be seen from Diagram I,
this decrease is unevenly distributed over the world.

1 World Food Situation 1946. Washington, February 1946,

[73]

DIAGRAM I

WORLD FOOD PRODUCTION IN 1943 AND 1945 AS A
PERCENTAGE OF PRE-WAR

PRE-WAR-
75 100 125

150

BRITISH ISLES
NORTH AMERICA
SOUTH AMERICA
MIDDLE EAST--
ASIA

BRITISH SOUTHERN
DOMINIONS

CONTINENTAL EUROPE
AND NORTH AFRICA '

WORLD TOTAL---

3 DEPARTMENT OF AGRiC'JLTuRE

* MOST Of THE RMAINDR OF THE TOTAL WAS PRODUCED BY U S S R WHR
WARTIME STATISTICS ON FOOD PRODUCTION HAVE NOT BESH PUBLISHED

The data here summarized suggest a practically unchanged (or
slightly increased) production in South America and the Middle
East ; a slightly decreased production in Asia, Australia, the Union
of South Africa and New Zealand, and a considerable decrease (in
the order of some 20 per cent) in Continental Europe and North
Africa, contrasting with a striking increase in the British Isles, which
normally, however, produce only about 1 per cent of the world's
total. North America is the only major producing area showing a
significant increase (about one-third) over pre-war. To obtain a real
insight into the seriousness of the food situation confronting the

[74]

world, not only the volume of output but also the many and difficult
problems of national and international distribution will have to be
considered.

Cereals and more particularly wheat and rice are truly the
"staff of life" of mankind. As regards wheat, practically the whole
exportable surplus derives from the four chief exporters (the United
States, Canada, Australia and the Argentine). Production in these
countries amounted to nearly 40 million tons on an average for
1935/39 against somewhat more than 46 million tons in 1945/46.
The pre-war net exports amounted to about 12 million tons. It should
be remarked that their wheat acreage has not increased ; indeed pro-
duction in all the chief exporting countries, except the U.S.A. was,
for various reasons, below pre-war levels. The existence of a sub-
stantial exportable surplus was accounted for by a series of welcome
bumper crops in the United States. As regards rice, the pre-war pro-
duction amounted to about 200 million tons, of which about 95%
was grown in Asia. Owing to the disorganization consequent upon
the war, and other unforeseeable conditions, the crop in 1945/46
fell to about 168 million tons, or about 15% below pre-war. Both
India and China have suffered from drought, and still greater deficits
are noted in Japan and former Japan-occupied areas such as Burma,
Siam and French Indo-China.

It is impossible to arrive at exact estimates of export surplus and
import requirements; these are not absolute quantities but depend on
a great number of partly variable circumstances, among which
the most important is the standard of consumption adopted. For the
purpose of illustration, however, we quote here the figures of the
Combined Food Board as of March 1946. The exportable surplus of
wheat for the crop year 1945/46 is estimated at about 25 million
long tons (including wheat substitutes, believed to be some 1 to 1.2
million tons, mainly from the Argentine). Of this roughly half was
exported during the latter part of 1945. For the first half of 1946 the
estimated exportable supply amounts to roughly 10 to 12 million tons.
Accepting the higher figure, and comparing it with stated require-
ments of 20-21 million tons, there is an estimated world deficit of
9-10 million tons. It should be noted that wheat requirements in-
creased during the crop year as a result of the failure of the Asiatic
rice crop, and that the stated requirements make an allowance of
about 1.5 million tons for the expected shortfall in rice during the
second quarter of 1946. (Previous estimates of some 8 million tons
are exclusive of this figure.) In other words, exportable supplies

[75]

amount to less than 60% of stated requirements. It should be noted,
however, that the U.S.S.R. may have alleviated the supply situation
somewhat by agreeing to export 0.5 million tons of cereals to France
during the spring of 1946.

The wheat situation is so much the more pivotal as practically all
other staple foods are in short supply. Thus, the prospective world
supply of fats and oil for 1946 is 2.8 million tons as compared with
stated requirements of 4.5 million tons. Similarly, outside the West-
ern Hemisphere lard will be in short supply owing to the reduction
in world pig numbers; it is estimated that the 1945/46 world output
will be about 35% below pre-war. The 1945 whaling season also
proved disappointing. As regards sugar, world production in 1945/46
was about 28 million short tons as compared with an average of
about 34 million tons for 1935/39. World exports are indicated at
a level of about 8 million tons or at about 65% of the pre-war level.

The serious sharpening of the food crisis at the beginning of 1946
was due partly to unforeseeable circumstances and partly to the over-
consumption during the first half of the crop year resulting from
over-optimism. Among the unforeseen factors were the extent of
drought in southern Europe, North Africa and India, and the very
large fall in agricultural productivity in eastern Europe as a result
of precipitate land reforms, large-scale transfers of populations, and
the continued requisitioning of draught power and machinery. Never-
theless, the chief reasons for the shortage were apparent relatively
early, and in August 1945, for instance, the Combined Eood Board
warned that "the outlook for the 1945/46 crop year at the moment
could be viewed only with grave misgivings." The war had left as a
heritage a serious disequilibrium between supply and demand, which
could have been overcome only by a strict economy and continued
food controls. But at this time important countries, in the desire to
revert to "normal," hastily abandoned many of the wartime controls.
The slender food surpluses chiefly in the form of wheat could not
stand the strain of the new demand so released.

The need for calories for human consumption is not absolute.
Crops are by and large (apart from waste, seed, industrial use, etc.)
divided between human and animal consumption. A number of crop
calories, however, fed to animals return only a portion in the form
of animal foodstuffs fit for human consumption. Hence, as was
shown in Chapter II, when total crops decrease, human consumption
may be maintained within certain limits by diverting feed grain
from animals to humans. And in principle if a lack of calories for

[76]

human consumption was to be avoided the decrease in world crops
necessitated a liquidation of livestock and a more vegetarian human
diet. The crop situation in 1945/46, instead of justifying a general
increase in livestock, clearly indicated a continued liquidation as the
only means of averting famine. In order to avoid misunderstanding,
however, it is necessary to recall the limitations of such a policy. The
population of such countries as China and India, and now also of
large parts of eastern and southern Europe, exist on a diet almost
completely vegetable in origin. No further liquidation of livestock
is either feasible or desirable in such areas ; a decrease in crop sup-
plies is translated almost directly into lack of calories for human
consumption, and the deficit cannot be made up otherwise than
through increased imports. And the more animal populations have
decreased already, the smaller are the relative gains through further
liquidation. It is dangerous to reduce a meagre stock of draught ani-
mals, and after the reduction of pig and poultry populations has been
driven to a certain point, a more drastic reduction of milk herds is an
expedient that should, as far as possible, be avoided. Milk is not only
essential to the health of future generations (and relatively cheap in
terms of vegetable calories used in its production), but cattle con-
sume to a large extent hay, waste, and other feed not suitable for
direct human consumption. A reduction of cattle and draught animals
also threatens future crops by the consequent reduction of manure
and draught power. Indeed, the 1'ourth Session of the UNRRA
Council, meeting in Atlantic City in March 1946, wisely recom-
mended that where livestock numbers had been drastically reduced
efforts should be made to rehabilitate livestock herds, in spite of
shortages of human food, by diversion of land to their feeding which
was not directly suited for crops. It is then to countries in which the
ratio of animal products to animal foods is relatively high that the
Combined Food Board addresses itself when it points out that "live-
stock recovery has proceeded at a faster rate than was justified," and
continues to point out that "livestock numbers will have to be reduced
appreciably if human beings are not to go hungry/' It is useful to
distinguish here between deficit and surplus areas.

While consumption levels, as will be seen later, were barely main-
tained or declined in eastern Europe, Germany and Italy, food con-
sumption increased in western Europe. But more seriously, on the
chance of expectations of further imports which could not be realized,
flour extraction rates were lowered and restrictions removed on the
feeding of cereals (other than wheat) to animals, with the result

[77]

that increasing livestock populations made inroads upon the insuffi-
cient cereal supplies. Tardily, in the spring of 1946, endeavours were
made to repair these mistakes, the results of which could not, of
course, be undone. The UNRRA Council in March passed a series
of resolutions summarizing steps which if they had come in the
autumn might well have prevented the crisis. The recommendations
may be summed up under the following headings : the elimination of
all avoidable food waste; the diversion of maximum quantities of
grain to direct human consumption and consequent reduction in live-
stock numbers; the raising of the rates of extraction in the milling
of cereals; and the diversion of fats from industrial use to food use.
in addition, procurement of foods from farmers was to be rendered
more efficient, and rationing continued.

Such measures, feasible in the surplus areas, are not likely, how-
ever, to yield appreciable results in the deficit areas, where waste is
already rare, inflation rampant, and administration of necessity not
at the peak of efficiency. In particular, the farmers demand an in-
creased supply of consumers' goods as an inducement to part with
their food. Though it is still premature to undertake a survey of the
results of such recommendations, a few examples of the way in which
countries meet the crisis are in order. In the spring of 1946 the rate
of extraction in the milling of cereals has been generally increased to
levels as high as or higher than those prevailing during the war.
Sweden, in addition to a food export of about 400,000 tons during
the last two years, has voluntarily given up import contracts for
about 100,000 tons of wheat and rye. But it is in the United King-
dom the greatest importer of food in the world that the conserva-
tion policy has been most energetically pursued. Not only has she
continued all the wartime controls of food production and distribu-
tion and even in some cases lowered wartime rations but she has
also voluntarily scaled down her import requirements. At the begin-
ning of the crop year she had set her requirements at 6.9 million tons
of cereals, but is now accepting 4.8 million tons a reduction of
nearly 30%. In addition, she has since the summer of 1945 exported
800,000 tons of cereals to the Continent of Europe, drastically reduc-
ing the bulk stocks held by the Ministry of Food. A nation-wide cam-
paign has been started to save bread still unrationed and the mill-
ing extraction rate has been raised. Feed rations to animals stand at
a sixth of the pre-war average. In France bread was again rationed
in January 1946, and the extraction rate of cereals has been raised to
But, by and large, the possible savings by these and similar

[78]

measures are not large, and their full effect cannot be felt during the
current crop year.

The deciding factor in the world food balance is rather to be
sought in the surplus countries, and particularly in the United States
of America. Unfortunately, in spite of recent energetic efforts, it is
highly doubtful whether these countries will be able to meet their
export commitments, not to speak of surpassing them. The surplus
countries (except the Argentine) introduced rationing of animal
foods during the war, which resulted in some check on the expansion
of animal production. Yet domestic consumption rose above pre-war
levels, particularly in the United States, where production was fur-
ther expanded to meet the needs of animal foods of Britain and of
the armies in the various theatres of operation. Had it not been for
the four successive bumper crops of wheat, satisfaction of the war-
time demand for feeding grain would have left the world at the end
of the war without any appreciable surplus of food. Still, after the
war when the world's heavy needs for wheat (not to mention quality
foods) had become apparent, the eating away by animals of the scarce
cereal supplies continued at an accelerated rate. Rationing of food,
except sugar, was rapidly lifted in the United States, and the con-
sumption of animal food continued above the wartime level. No less
than 175 million bushels, or close to 4 million tons of wheat were
diverted to feeding purposes during the last half-year of 1945. The
total pig crop in 1945 86,714,000 was practically the same as in
1944 (or some 10% above the 1934/43 average) ; but pigs were fed
more heavily than usual, the marketing weight of hogs in the late
winter of 1946 being on an average about 20 pounds higher than
during the corresponding period of 1945. A larger proportion than
usual of steers slaughtered was of high quality, indicating heavy
feeding. The quality of grain and other concentrates fed per milk
cow was at a record level, while total heads continued to be fairly
stable. Production of eggs rose to 55.218 millions in 1945 as com-
pared with an average for the 1934/43 period of 40.026 millions. To
a great extent, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
the extraordinary demand for livestock feed "is traceable to high
rates of feeding, which are traceable in turn to a favourable livestock-
feed price ratio." l In other words, to a failure to raise the prices of
grains for food in time to prevent a serious supply situation from
developing, or alternatively, to reduce prices of animal products

1 United States Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing Ad-
ministration Press Release, March 16th, 1946.

[79]

(which, however, would have necessitated the reintroduction of con-
sumer-rationing of animal products).

By the beginning of 1946 it had become clear to all that the rate of
grain consumption by livestock would render it difficult or impossible
for the United States to meet her export commitments. On February
6th the President issued a nine-point programme aimed at securing
the quantities of wheat committed for export. The milling extraction
rate for wheat was raised to 80% ; the use of wheat for the manufac-
ture of beer and alcohol was prohibited; inventory controls were
prepared ; priorities were established to clear the way for moving the
huge quantities of wheat and other foods involved in export ; and
measures were taken to reduce the feeding of wheat to livestock. The
public was asked to economize in the use of wheat and avoid all waste
of food in general. The question of increasing the price of wheat
was under discussion at the moment of writing. The people of the
United States were in all asked to reduce consumption of grain by
40% and of fats and oils by 20%. In order to achieve these goals
the President created the Famine Emergency Committee, under the
honorary Chairmanship of former President Hoover, to plan and
direct the steps needed to reduce domestic food consumption. It is
hoped that export commitments will be met without reintroducing
rationing of food or generally reducing livestock numbers. It should
be noted, however, that the 1945/46 export quota represents a one-
time effort; by the end of the crop year it is estimated that stocks
will have fallen below safe minimum levels and cannot be counted
upon to make up in the next season for any shortage in the current
crop.

The situation in the other supplying countries is not much more
hopeful, even though Canada and Australia have taken rather
stringent measures to prevent the expansion of domestic consump-
tion of animal products. The Canadian Government has introduced
a food-saving campaign, and taken action to reduce inventories to
lowest possible levels. Meat rationing was reintroduced in Canada
in October 1945, on a lower scale than during the war. Butter rations
were set at about half those of the war period, while such products
as bacon and cheese are kept in short supply. The wheat released to
distilling is reduced by 50%, and Canadian millers are permitted to
grind for home consumption only 90% of the amounts used in 1945,
thus indirectly leading to an increased extraction in milling. It is
anticipated that the export surplus of wheat will have completely
disappeared by the end of the 1945/46 crop year. During the war

[80]

the United Kingdom lost the Continental food imports and cut down
her own animal production, relying upon the Dominions and the
United States to supply her with the needed animal products. These
commitments cannot he neglected. Australia has continued her food
control measures, but available supplies were reduced by the drought
in the previous crop year in which she lost 20 million sheep. The
question of getting wheat out of the Argentine is largely tied up with
imports of coal and machinery ; for lack of fuel her railroads were
burning grains during the war, a practice now discontinued.

Considering the situation in the surplus countries as a whole, there
is very little reason to expect that they will at best be able to meet
more than their commitments for the present year. Moreover, by the
end of the 1945/46 crop year surplus stocks of food will have dis-
appeared, and the world will have to exist on its current production.
Though at the moment of writing the prospects are for another good
wheat crop in the United States, the seriousness of the situation can-
not be denied. It is still impossible to foresee the outcome of the
world crop as a whole. While it may reasonably be hoped that we
shall be spared another season of widespread drought, there is no
reason to believe that productivity of agriculture, particularly in
Europe, will recover rapidly. The disorganization of transport and
administration and the lack of fertilizers, machinery and draught
pov\er are cumulative in effect. A serious crop failure, then, in the
absence of any reserve stocks, could well be catastrophic in its effects ;
and grave as tiie situation remains for the rest of the 1945/46 crop
year, the dangers looming ahead for the following year are even
more disquieting. Indeed, to prevent the development of an even
worse situation than the present one, by the end of the l c )46/47 crop
year, it is now high time to carry into effect, to the fullest extent
possible, such food conservation measures as were recommended at
the recent Atlantic City meeting of the LINRRA Council and quoted
above. 1

1 Since this volume went to the press an international coniYrence snmmoiu-d
by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization has met in Washing-
ton, D.C. (May 20th-27th, 1946) to consider urgent food problems. Urging the
adoption by all nations of an emergency programme of food conservation, it
recommended inter alia: (a) raising the < xtraction of \\heat tlour to a minimum
of $5% where lower rates are applied; (b) stretching the supply of wheat flour
by at least 5% admixture of flour from other grains or from potatoes; (c) limit-
ing the use of grain for alcoholic beverages and "other non-essential purposes" ;
(d) maximum diversion of grain and potatoes from feed use to human consump-
tion while giving priority to milk herds and draught animals in whatever feeding
of coarse grains that may be necessary; (e) reduction of grain-absorbing quality-

[81]

meat production; (f) reduction of food waste; (g) reduction of Government
stocks of food; (h) taking steps rendering it possible to put direct rationing of
bread into effect at short notice, should this prove necessary. These recommenda-
tions, it will be observed, are essentially a restatement of the latest UNRRA
resolutions discussed above.

The Conference recommended further (1) the institution of an international
research and information service to survey and report quarterly on the \\orld
food situation, and (2) the creation of an International Emergency Food Council
to carry on the work of the Combined Food Board and to be composed initially
of representatives of those nations- some twenty in number now represented on
that Board and its committees.

CHAPTER IV
LEVELS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION, 1945/1946

FOR several reasons it has proved impossible to give at the present
time data on post-war rations and consumption as detailed as those
given in Chapter II for the war period. But fortunately there is now
coming forward an increasing flow of estimates indicative of the
levels of calorie consumption in different countries ; these are used
below to show the repercussions of the food crisis on food consump-
tion. It must be emphasized, however, that these estimates are of
varying value and are generally quite approximative. Not only is it
difficult in most cases to arrive at correct estimates of available sup-
plies, but expressing foods in terms of calories involves the exercise
of arbitrary judgment to a considerable degree; hence a fairly wide
margin of error must be taken into account.

Table I summarizes two authoritative estimates of calorie con-
sumption levels in Europe. The first, undertaken by the United States
Department of Agriculture, relates to the autumn of 1945; separate
figures are given whenever possible for the total population and for
non-farmers. The second set of figures derives from the Emergency
Economic Committee for Europe ; it shows on the one hand "normal-
consumer'* rations in December 1945. (The reservations to which
such figures are subject have been discussed in some detail in Chap-
ter II, to which reference should be made.) It shows on the other
hand weighted average rations of all consumer groups, plus estimated
additions from non-rationed sources. It thus attempts to show the
total diet of non-farmers, which is naturally higher than "normal
consumer" rations. The table shows finally the "predicted" average
diet for non-farm consumers. The countries, in so far as the data
permit, have been arranged in falling order of consumption. All
figures are per cafmt; in order to arrive at figures per consumption
unit (indicative of physiological needs) they should be increased on
an average by about a fourth.

A first group of countries Denmark, the United Kingdom,

[83]

Sweden and Switzerland have a calorie consumption not signifi-
cantly below their high pre-war time averages. Though, as shown in
Chapter II, the composition of the diets has changed during the war,
there is no reason to assume that they are nutritionally much inferior
to the pre-war diets. Owing to a more equitable distribution of avail-
able supplies, the poorer strata of the population may even be better
off than previously. It is not anticipated that these countries in spite
of voluntary sacrifices made by consumers in favour of those in less
fortunate countries will experience serious difficulty in pulling
through to the next crop, even though the calorie level may be
slightly cut for some time.

A second group of countries can be distinguished which includes
some nations of western Europe Belgium, France, Luxembourg
and the Netherlands plus Norway and Czechoslovakia. In these
countries average consumption per head of the whole population
amounted, according to the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, to about 2500 calories in the autumn of 1945. A net allowance
of this order would equal more than 3000 calories per consumption
unit. The system of distribution, however, was varyingly successful
in achieving an equitable sharing of available resources. In France
farmers were consuming more or less at a normal rate, while the
city population was much less well off. The normal consumer in
Paris, for instance, had rations estimated at some 1400/1 500 calories,
to which should be added free foods and black market purchases. It
is unlikely, however, that the poor could afford substantial additions,
and we have a picture of relative plenty side by side with real pri-
vation.

As in the case of France, considerable variation in consumption
levels is observed in the Bohemian and Moravian provinces of
Czechoslovakia. While farmers' consumption on the whole is prob-
ably close to the pre-war standard, the urban (non-German) popula-
tion received a diet estimated at 1840 calories per day per head for
the three four-weekly rationing periods ending on February 3rd,
1946. The rations of Germans are estimated at 1050 calories. No
direct data are available for Slovakia ; domestic production allows
only some 500/600 calories a day for the urban population, which
is hence almost completely dependent upon imports to obtain a satis-
factory diet. The difference between urban and rural diets seems to
be less in Belgium, the Netherlands and Norway. In the autumn of
1945 when average national consumption in all three countries was
about 2500 calories per day per head the non-farm consumption

[84]

TABLE I

ESTIMATED CALORIE CONSUMPTION IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 1945-46
(Calories per head per day)

U. S. Department of Agriculture

Country

Second half of 1945

Pre-war

Total population

Non-farm population

Denmark

3200

3000

2900

United Kingdom

2800/2900'

Sweden

3000

2800

Switzerland

3300

2500

2300

Netherlands

2800

2600

2500

Norway

2900

2500

2400

Belgium

2800

2550

2500

Czechoslovakia

2700

2500

2200

France

2800

2400

1400<

Luxembourg

2500/2600

2400

Greece

2450

U.S.S.R.

Finland

3100

1800

Portugal

2100

1900

Spain

2650

1900

Austria

2850

less than 1800

Albania

2000

1800

Yugoslavia

2700

Bulgaria

2650

Germany:

U.K. Zone

U.S.A. Zone

2850

1750

U.S.S.R. Zone

Italy

2550

1550

Rou mania

2750

Hungary

2600

less than 1500

Poland

2550

lAs of June i, 1946.

Partial rationing.

J Adults only.

< Paris only.

* Normal consumer.

(New York Times, April to, 1946.

SOURCES: U. S. Department of Agriculture: World Pood Situation, 1046, Washington, D. C. February 1946. Emer-
gency Economic Committee for Europe: The Winter Pood Position in Europe. (Report by the Sub-Committee on Food
and Agriculture), London, 1946.

was estimated at 2500 calories in the Netherlands and Belgium and
2400 in Norway. These rations would, if some normal waste
is eliminated, permit a consumption not far from the needed 3000
calories per consumption unit a day. While the composition of the
diet has naturally deteriorated since before the war, particularly as
regards animal food, its level seems high enough to maintain health

[85]

TABLE I (Continued)

ESTIMATED CALORIE CONSUMPTION IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 1945-46
(Calories per head per day)

Emergency Economic Committee for Europe

Country

1945 (Dec.)

Spring 1946

"Normal consumer"

Non-farm diet:

Predicted average for

rations

weighted average

non-farm population

of all ration groups

winter 1946*

Denmark

2850

over 2500

United Kingdom

2850

Sweden

3000

Switzerland

2300

over 2500

Netherlands

2230

2100

Norway

1590

2000/2500

Belgium

2040

2270

2000/2200

Czechoslovakia

1170/1510

less than 2000

France

1560'

1500/2500

Luxembourg

2000

Greece

1100s

1800

1700

U.S.S.R.

less than 2000

Finland

1130

less than 2000

Portugal

1120

1500/2500

Spain

less than 1500

Austria

1550

less than 2000

Albania

1800

2000

Yugoslavia

2000/2500

Bulgaria

2200/2400

Germany:

U.K. Zone

1550

1500/2000

U.S.A. Zone

1500

1500/2000

U.S.S.R. Zone

885/1415

less than 2000

Italy

800/ 900

1400/16005

1400/1600

Roumania

circa 600

less than 1500

Hungary

500/1000

less than 1500

Poland

1130 6

less than 2000

and efficiency. Such serious shortages as existed particularly in the
big French towns and in parts of Czechoslovakia were the result
of maldistribution rather than of over-all shortages of supply.

The outlook for the remainder of the crop year is highly uncer-
tain. As stocks are used up the countries become more dependent
upon continued imports, and prediction of consumption levels be-
comes a gamble on imports. Still, it seems likely that the Netherlands,
Belgium and Norway will succeed in maintaining non-farm con-
sumption above 2000 calories a day. In France the situation is more
uncertain. This is also true of Czechoslovakia, where maintenance of

[86]

consumption at about the level just indicated is contingent upon ful-
fillment in toto of the UNRRA programme plus further imports,
mainly of cereals and fats, outside that programme. Some cuts are
probably inevitable in most if not all of these countries, but a truly
critical situation is not expected to develop in their case with the
possible exception of Czechoslovakia and urban France. It should
be remembered, too, that a temporary deficiency in calories is less
serious than a protracted one.

A third group of countries including Greece, Finland, Portugal
and Spain hovered, in the autumn of 1945, on the critical level be-
tween just enough and starvation, the average consumption per head
of the total population being rather less than 2000 calories a day.
Consumption of the non-farm population in Greece was down to
about 1700 calories a day in January 1946, the maintenance of this
level depending entirely upon UNRRA assistance. The normal con-
sumer ration at the end of 1945 was down to little more than 1100
calories, indicative of the critical position of the urban population
where extra food was not obtained from the thriving black market.
The maintenance of even the meagre rations prevailing requires con-
tinued imports. In Spain, owing to the lingering effects of the Civil
War, the disorganization of transport and the lack of fertilizers, and
owing, in addition, to drought in 1945, food production remained at
a low level (perhaps some 70% of the average for 1931/35). The
low rations are irregularly available, and may have to be further
reduced before the new harvest. The situation in Portugal is perhaps
less precarious, but maintenance of rations depends upon imports.

The position in the Balkans and the countries of eastern Europe is
more difficult to assess ; it is, however, by all indications exceedingly
serious, and starvation or semi-starvation is common. The Danubian
countries were normally food-surplus areas ; production was rela-
tively well maintained during the war years but was drastically re-
duced in 1945. These countries are predominantly agricultural ; hence
the reduction of total supply falls particularly heavily on the city
populations. In Bulgaria the situation would seem critical mainly in
the tobacco-growing regions, where the level of consumption may be
less than 1500 calories a day. In Roumania, where the official ration
supplies only some 600 calories a day, the city population may receive
in all some 1300/1400 calories a day or less. Official food stocks, it was
feared, would be exhausted early in the spring of 1946. In Hungary
starvation appears to be common, and runaway inflation complicates
the problems of food procurement and distribution. The city food

[87]

rations amount to some 500/1000 calories a day, according to local-
ity, to which should he added unknown contributions from the black
market. In Poland, on the other hand, domestic supplies would seem
to permit of a ration of some 1300 calories a day for the city popula-
tion, which is dependent on UNRRA help and other imports for
additions to that basic figure. No information is available for the
Baltic States and the U.S.S.R. Recent grain exports from the latter
country suggest, however, that its food crisis has been passed. Official
rations are reported to be better fulfilled, sugar rations and bread
rations for children have been increased, and prices in the free market
were recently reduced.

An over-all picture of food conditions in Germany is difficult to
obtain owing to the division of the country into four zones of occu-
pation. In the occupation zones of the western allies, it was estimated
in the autumn of 1945 that domestic supplies would allow an average
consumption of about 1500 calories per person of the total popula-
tion, and about 1100 for the non-farm population for the year as a
whole. December levels in this area were probably some 1750 calories
for non-farmers, a level that could be maintained only by imports or
excessive withdrawals from domestic stocks. Until November 1945
normal consumer rations in all occupation zones remained below the
1550 calorie level which the Combined Nutrition Committee (com-
posed of experts from the United States, the United Kingdom and
France) considered insufficient for the maintenance of health for
more than a short period. The rations were highest (1550 in Decem-
ber 1945) in the British zone, followed by the American zone (1500
calories). The rations (not always honoured) were considerably
lower in the French and Russian zones, where distribution also was
rendered more uneven by transport and storage difficulties. The
normal consumer rations varied between 800 and 1200 calories a
day. The total urban consumption was estimated in December 1945
at 1200 calories a day in the Russian and 1600 calories in the American
zone. Black market additions, while varying greatly, were estimated
on an average at 300/400 calories in the Russian and 200 in the
American zone. Rations for the rest of the crop year cannot be
maintained at these levels without imports on a scale much larger
than was originally planned. Thus, average daily rations in the Brit-
ish zone in April 1946 were reported cut to 1040 calories, and in
the American zone to 1275 calories. 1

The position in Austria is critical, but it is difficult to obtain a clear
l New York Times, March 18th and 30th, 1946.

[88]

picture of conditions as a whole. In October 1945 normal consumer
rations amounted to 800 in the Soviet, 1490 in the American, 1425
in the British and 1445 in the French zones. For the country as a
whole, non-farm consumption, including black market additions, was
estimated at less than 1800 calories a person. But even this level
could not be maintained without large imports ; during the spring the
situation has further deteriorated, and the ration in Vienna is now
reported to be some 800 calories a day. The total non-farm consump-
tion in Italy during December 1945 does not appear to have been as
much as 1550 calories a day on an average, and "normal consumer"
rations supplied some 820 calories a day. Even these rations depend
for their maintenance on large-scale imports of wheat.

Summarizing the situation as of January 1946, the Emergency
Economic Committee for Europe estimates though admittedly on
the optimistic side that "after taking into account all home-grown
and imported food supplies available or in sight," 140 million people
"will have to continue to live on a diet which provides an average
of less than 2000 calories a day." Of these approximately 100 million
may receive less than 1500 calories. 1 The remaining 40 million may
be expected to receive 1500/2000 calorics. 2 Those estimates exclude
Albania, Turkey and the U.S.S.R.

Diets of between 2000 and 2500 calories appear in prospect for the
non-farmers in Belgium, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, Norway and
parts of Yugoslavia (perhaps some 21 millions). Average diets above
2500 calories will be available to non- farmers in Sweden, the United
Kingdom, Denmark and Switzerland, and for non- fanners in all
countries not specified above. Threatened with famine or semi-starva-
tion are thus about 150 million people, or not far from 40% of
Europe's little more than 400 million population (exclusive of the
U.S.S.R.). It is as yet, however, too early to foresee the outcome of
the present crisis; though large-scale suffering and privation seem
unavoidable, energetic measures still seem capable of averting catas-
trophe on a large scale.

Reliable information for Asia, the other great food-deficit area, is
even more difficult to obtain than in the case of Europe, and we have

1 The non-farm populations of Austria, Eastern Slovakia, Finland. Germany,
Hungary, Italy, Roumania, and possibly Spain Further, the farm population in
the tobacco-growing districts of Bulgaria, and German residents in C/echo-
slovakia.

2 The non-farm populations of Franre, Bohemia, Moravia and Western Slo-
vakia, Greece, and certain districts of Yugoslavia. A hare 2000-calorie diet may
be in store for non-farmers in Luxembourg and possibly Portugal.

[89]

to rely mainly on broad estimates and guesses. It is expected that the
combined effects of drought in the north and tidal wave and drought
in the south will reduce the crops in India to considerably below
normal. In the absence both of stocks and of a food buffer provided
by husbandry, this shortage of cereals, estimated for India as a whole
at some 8 million tons, is therefore at once translated into a shortage
of calories for human consumption. In India in the spring of 1946
some 130/140 million non-farmers received a ration of 9.6 ounces
of cereals (270 grammes) daily; self-suppliers were allowed a pound
a day. In order to maintain the rations for non-farmers the Indian
Government is asking for 4 million tons during 1946. On April 3rd
it was announced that India had been allotted 1.65 million tons of
cereals by the Combined Food Board, and that shipments will be at
the rate of 14,000 tons a day. It is reported that rain has slightly
improved the crop prospects, but it is stated that India requires a
further 2 million tons during the first half of the next crop year in
order to avoid famine conditions.

It is particularly difficult to arrive at reliable estimates of food
needs and supply in a country as large as China, where normally
large sections of the people live on the verge of starvation. Since the
cessation of hostilities most of China has been reunited under one
government, with a reported population in 1940 of 481 millions. Ac-
cording to reports by the United States Department of Agriculture,
food production in the 1945/46 crop year was slightly below the
average of recent years. Pre-war China imported about 1 million
short tons of wheat and flour and 0.7 million tons of rice; but
Formosa exported about the same quantity to Japan, while net ex-
ports of beans (largely soya beans) amounted to 2.3 million tons in
addition to 0.4 million tons of coarse grains. Difficulty of transport,
however, results in above-pre-war import requirements. Acute de-
ficiency areas have been reported chiefly in the province of Kwan-
tung and certain areas in the interior such as Honan. Import require-
ments in excess of UNRRA aid are estimated at 1.3 million tons of
cereals, to meet mainly the need of the large cities and the special
areas in short supply.

We have pointed out previously that Japan's food situation was
already critical at the end of hostilities. Owing to the failure of the
1945 rice crop, the cessation of almost all imports, the five million
population increase during the war, and the return of soldiers from
overseas, the situation has gone from bad to worse. The non-farm
population may obtain some 900 calories a day from domestic

[90]

sources, while farmers may consume at a rate of some 2300 calories,
adding up to a national average of some 1400 calories a day, com-
pared with a pre-war consumption of about double this figure. Merely
to bring the national diet up to 1800 calories a day a person would
require a yearly import of some 4 million tons of cereals. The Allied
Supreme Command has granted the Japanese Government permission
to import food, but no figures are available as to actual imports. In
view of the food crisis it is unlikely that very substantial quantities
have been or will be made available during the present crop year.

Food production in the Philippines declined severely during occu-
pation and liberation. With food imports, mainly from the United
States, the country is likely to tide over the present crisis. During
the first quarter of 1946 food allocations from the United States
amounted to 66,000 tons of rice, 3500 tons of meat, 8700 tons of
condensed and evaporated milk, and 2000 tons of sugar.

The political unrest makes the food situation of the Netherlands
East Indies very difficult to assess. It has been estimated that the
calorie value of the chief staple crops in the present crop year is
about 15% smaller than the average for 1936-1939.

In the rest of the world conditions do not on the whole call for
special comment. It should be added, however, that due to prolonged
drought in the Union of South Africa shortages have arisen in
cereals, meat and dairy products necessitating considerable imports.

CHAPTER V
POST-WAR RELIEF

IN AUGUST 1940 Prime Minister Churchill in a speech in the
House of Commons promised that after the defeat of the enemy
the peoples of Europe should receive food and relief. A few months
later Great Britain set up a Committee of Surpluses with the purpose,
inter alia, of acquiring stocks of relief goods. In September 1941
there was created in London on British initiative an Inter-Allied
Committee on Post-War Requirements, which in the following- year
and a half compiled detailed schedules of post-war import require-
ments of the occupied areas in Europe. 1 Meanwhile, various inter-
departmental committees in the United States had been actively con-
sidering post-war needs. Soon after Pearl Harbor these activities
were centralized in a special Office of Eoreign Relief and Rehabilita-
tion Operations within the Department of State. Under its aegis
actual operations were carried out in Tunisia in 1943 ; feeding pro-
grammes were launched, refugee camps opened, and health services
provided.

But as the invasion of Europe drew nearer the need for broad
international action and co-ordination of effort in bringing together
deficit and surplus areas became more apparent. After consultations
between the American and British Governments, the former pre-
sented a draft agreement for a Relief Organization to all the United
Nations. With some modifications incorporating suggestions from
interested governments, the proposal was adopted on November 9th,
1943, by representatives of 44 United and Associated Nations meet-
ing in Washington, and thus was established the United Nations Re-
lief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). Its member
states were later increased to 48.

1 In 1941 a Middle East Relief and Refugee Administration, with headquarters
in Cairo, was also set up to care for Polish and Greek refugees who had escaped
from the Germans. Its activities were later taken over by UNRRA.

[92]

The purposes of the new organization were broad and sweeping.
According to Article I of the agreement, they were :

(a) 'To plan, co-ordinate, administer or arrange for the
administration of measures for the relief of victims of war
in any area under the control of any of the United Nations
through the provision of food, fuel, clothing, shelter and
other basic necessities, medical and other essential services ;
and to facilitate in such areas, so far as necessary to the
adequate provision of relief, the production and transporta-
tion of these articles and the furnishing of these serv-
ices . . ."

(b) "To formulate and recommend measures for indi-
vidual or joint action by ... member governments . . . for
the purpose of achieving an equitable distribution of avail-
able supplies."

(c) "To study, formulate and recommend . . . measures
with respect to such related matters ... as may be proposed
by any of the member governments . . ."

The UNRRA Council, composed of one representative of each
member state, is the central policy-determining body; it reaches deci-
sions by simple majority vote. Between sessions a Central Committee
(composed of representatives of the U.S.A., the United Kingdom,
(lie U.S.S.R., and China) makes policy decisions of an emergency
nature, subject, however, to reconsideration by the full Council.
Two Regional Committees, one for Europe and one for the Far East,
composed of representatives of the member governments in each
area, are competent to make recommendations to the Council for
their own area. There are in addition a number of technical commit-
tees to advise the Council on specific questions, e.g. the Committee
on Supply, the Committees on Agriculture, Displaced Persons,
Health, etc. Executive authority is vested in the Director General,
who together with his staff is responsible for the carrying out of the
directives given by the Council. Headquarters were established in
Washington, D.C. ; the European Regional Office was placed in
London. Numerous regional offices and country missions have also
been established; by the beginning of 1946 UNRRA's staff com-
prised almost 17,000 officials, the greatest number ever employed by
any single international organization, UNRRA's activities are ex-

[93]

pected to cease by the end of 1946 in Europe and three months later
in the Far East.

UNRRA is financed by the governments of its non-invaded mem-
ber countries, whose initial contributions were fixed (in Atlantic
City) at approximately 1 per cent of the national income for the
year ending June 30th, 1943. In August 1945 the Council recom-
mended a second contribution from each such country on the same
basis. The total funds of the organization are estimated on this basis
to reach 3.77 billion U.S. dollars. As of December 1945 governments
had appropriated or preliminarily approved $3.6 billions, of which
$2.9 had actually been made available.

Large as these sums are, they proved modest when compared with
needs; assistance therefore had to be made highly selective. Relief
was limited to such liberated areas only as lacked the foreign ex-
change needed to pay for their own imports (though the Director
General has authority to provide health and welfare services to all
liberated areas). Hence, UNRRA's large-scale activities came to be
restricted in fact to a relatively small group of liberated countries,
limited relief programmes being authorized later for some ex-enemy
countries, notably Italy, Austria and Finland.

Next to the problem of geographical limitation of aid came that
of allocating resources to restricted groups of goods and services.
Since UNRRA came into being some two years before it became
possible to render large-scale relief, there should have been ample
time to collect requisite information, draw up plans and develop
procedures in advance of actual operations. Requirements were de-
termined in practice on the basis of estimates submitted by claimant
governments. The regional committees for Europe and the Far East
first determined, each for its own area, theoretical norms of needs
of different commodities or commodity groups. The difference be-
tween total needs thus calculated and estimated local supplies was
taken to represent subject to minor adjustments theoretical im-
port requirements. It so happened, however, that when added to-
gether these theoretical requirements of the countries in question
exceeded the financial resources of UNRRA. Therefore the pro-
grammes had gradually to be scaled down until they came within
the limits of budgetary resources. It is not necessary to enter into
the details of this process, which was carried out in conjunction with
interested governments. National relief budgets began to emerge
which could be translated into actual programmes of operation, and
in the course of the process countries naturally eliminated less urgent

[94]

requirements and placed increasing emphasis on food. The following
figures show the estimated quantities and value of supplies by main
groups shipped by UNRRA from all sources to liberated areas up
to the end of 1945:

Total

Food

Clothing,
textiles and
footwear

Agricultural
rehabilita-
tion goods

Industrial
rehabilita-
tion goods

Medical
and sanita-
tion goods

Tonnage
shipped
(thousands
of long
tons)

3,959

2,663

188

346

738

Value
(thousands
of U.S.
dollars)

681,553

316,777

173,325

46,505

116,073

28,873

According to the general procedure of determining programmes
described above, Council Resolution No. 17 charged the Committee
of the Council for Europe and that for the Far East respectively with
the task of evolving inter alia, each for its area, scales of nutritional
relief requirements. In Resolution No. 55 the Council adopted the
theoretical scales for Europe submitted by the European Committee.
These scales, in turn, were drawn up by the ad hoc Sub-Committee
for Europe. 1

The standards evolved were declared to be in the nature of "mini-
mum requirements which, if possible, should be introduced as soon
as territories have been liberated." As a general basis for determining
such minimum requirements the Committee recommended "the use
of an average level of consumption of the total population of each
of the countries concerned of 2650 calories (at the retail stage)
per head per day for essential relief needs for the period under con-
sideration." As regards the composition of the diet "the estimates
should include sufficient quantities of milk and eggs to enable the
following allowances to be made for priority groups of the popula-
tions in Allied territory:

1 This Committee met May 5th to June 17th, 1944, under the chairmanship of
Dr. Karl Evan}? of Norway and included representatives from Australia, Bel-
gium, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, the French Committee of National Liberation,
Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, the United
Kingdom, U.S.A., the U.S.S.R., and Yugoslavia.

[95]

Whole milk Eggs

( litres per day ) ( per week )

Pregnant and nursing mothers ^. 7

Children, 0-3 years ^

Children, 4-7 years */2

Sick people y 2 7 l "

All in all the average diet should contain a daily allowance of
75 grammes of fat and 60 grammes of protein (of which about half
should be of animal origin). 2 In addition the Committee looked for-
ward to the early de-rationing of bread in liberated areas.

Although these scales are lower than ''recommended allowances"
for optimum health and efficiency, it was perhaps not generally real-
ized how high they were in relation to the depleted resources of the
world and also in relation to peacetime consumption. A calorie-
allowance of 2650 per day per head of the population at the retail
stage corresponds roughly to 3300 calories a day per consumption
unit. Family budget figures also show quantities of foods purchased
at the retail stage. It is of interest to compare the UNRRA relief
requirements with figures of actual working class consumption before
the war; available data of this kind were given in Table VI of
Chapter II above. 3

Except in the case of Belgium, where families before the war were
reported to consume at the rate of some 3500 calories per consump-
tion unit, the UNRRA figures are throughout higher than observed
working-class consumption in peacetime. It was 2560 in Italy, 2800
in Switzerland, 2900 in Germany, 3000 in Poland and Norway, and

1 The question whether the above quantities of milk and eggs were appropriate
was referred to the technical suh-committee on health. It recommended with
respect to milk the following additional rations : children 4-7 ) r ears */ 2 litre a
day; 8-13 years (at least) l / litre a day. With respect to eggs it recommended 3
eggs a week for expectant and nursing mothers, children 0-3 years, and sick
people; and 1 egg weekly for children 4-7 years.

2 It should be mentioned, however, that the ad hoc Food Sub-Committee re-
garded these requirements as "inadequate in respect to total protein and animal
protein" for populations whose health has been seriously undermined by pro-
longed existence barely above the starvation level. It recommended for these
groups "a basic diet providing not less than 80 (j. of protein, of which not less
than 30 g. should be of animal origin," even though the "Commission recognizes
that such a diet would provide a higher level of animal protein than is cus-
tomary in certain parts of Europe."

3 In comparing these figures with figures for consumption of total population,
it should be kept in mind, however, that rural consumption is normally higher
than urban consumption, and that the UNRRA minimum standard represents an
average between the two.

[96]

did not much exceed 3200 in such relatively rich countries as Sweden
and the Netherlands. The minimum relief standards were set higher
rather than lower than actual consumption in peacetime in practically
all the liberated areas.

In order to illustrate how the recommended animal protein allow-
ance of 30 grammes per day per person compares with actual con-
sumption levels a few examples may be given. It is roughly the
amount contained in 200 grammes of meat, or 1 litre of milk, or 2^
eggs. The British peacetime diet is estimated to have contained little
more than 40 grammes of animal proteins per head per day, and in
order to maintain this level on the relatively small area of the British
Isles, about three-fourths of the world's total meat exports were
needed, in addition to a considerable home production. Now, at this
level of consumption the animal calories in the British diet repre-
sented roughly 36% of total calories. 1 As shown in Chapter II, the
animal ratio for the Continent before the war was estimated at 22%.
It was shown too that during the war this ratio had been deliberately
decreased so as to release crop calories for direct human consump-
tion. Indeed, the wartime diets in eastern Europe, the Balkans and
Italy were not only insufficient in quantity, but also almost exclu-
sively vegetable in origin. Hence, the suggested minimum protein
standard was not only much higher than wartime standards in the
countries which later became dependent on UNRRA help, but higher
also than it had been in peacetime in most European countries. 2

It is obvious that the simultaneous increase in the calorie standard
and of the animal ratio to levels as high (or higher) than before
the war would have necessitated a corresponding expansion of world
production of basic crops, additional in fact to the new needs arising
from the quite considerable population increase during the war years.
But world food production contracted during the war (as shown in
Chapter III), and signs of impending crisis were not lacking at the
time that the relief standards were being laid down. Past experience
has shown that it is difficult to restore rapidly the crop production
in war-ravaged countries hampered by lack of fertilizers, equipment,
trained labour, etc. The only substantial food reserves upon which
the world could count, then, in tiding over to more normal conditions,
were at that time represented by wheat stocks in the hands of the
four great exporters. These stocks had by the end of the crop year
1942/43 reached the record level of 45.5 million tons. But from this

1 This assumes 50% of the fats to be of animal origin.

2 An analysis of the fat requirements leads to substantially similar results

[97]

time on they have been constantly decreasing, and have been sus-
tained (at a gradually falling level) only by the exceptional occur-
rence of four bumper crops in sequence in the United States. Owing
to increased domestic utilization of wheat, available stocks had by
the end of the crop year 1943/44 fallen to 30 million tons, in spite
of the fact that exports had remained below pre-war normal. The
decisive factor in this development, of course, was the expanding
animal production ; the feeding of wheat to animals in the exporting
countries skyrocketed from a pre-war average of 4.5 million tons to
18.1 million tons in 1943/44. The signs were thus unmistakable that
the animal production had expanded beyond safety levels, and that
adequate supplies of wheat for post-war relief hinged upon an early
reversal of the trend, i.e. upon a general reduction of an animal ratio
in the human diet. Subsequently the disequilibrium here described
was further accentuated by crop failures due to unpredictable
droughts, especially in southern Europe, North Africa and India.

Tn these circumstances it is obvious that the more successful
UNRRA had been in the procurement of fats and other animal food-
stuffs, the more it would have contributed to sharpening the short-
age of cereals. In fact, however, it was unable to procure more than
a fraction of the animal food requirements laid down in the mini-
mum standards, which proved in a sense a dead letter. It would
nevertheless be incorrect to conclude that the optimism, though tem-
pered, of which they were an expression has not had indirect effects
of some consequence. Tt encouraged countries in their endeavours to
expand livestock numbers which may already have been too large,
relatively speaking, and were eating into the precious supplies of
cereals needed to prevent human starvation. It may have contributed
to premature relaxation if not abandonment of rationing in certain
countries and may have contributed also to delaying UNRRA from
using its moral influence to combat the unbalance in the world's
agriculture. As pointed out above, the resolutions indicative of a
reversal of policy were only passed by the Council in Atlantic City
in March 1946. It should be noted with reference to the above, how-
ever, that the determination of needs was divorced in a sense from
the actual procurement of supplies to meet the recognized require-
ments; for the functions of allocation of supplies were centred not
in UNRRA but in the Combined Food Board.

Though the powers and functions of UNRRA were orginally
widely conceived (cf. in particular sections b) and c} of Article I
of the Agreement), UNRRA in fact entered upon the world scene

[98]

not as an agency for co-ordinating the world food policy, but as a
claimant among several claimants for food. Ultimate responsibility
for allocation of scarce commodities between countries or groups of
countries continued to rest in the Combined Board and its numerous
Commodity Committees. They were set up during the war to provide
a common forum for formulating plans and recommendations re-
garding the distribution of goods available for export. The Board is
composed of representatives of the United States, Canada and the
United Kingdom, while the various commodity committees are com-
posed of representatives of the main exporting and importing coun-
tries for each commodity. A representative for UNRRA attends
meetings of committees dealing with foods in which UNRRA is
interested on behalf of claimant countries. The Combined Board
compiles from the governments concerned data on supplies, normal
requirements, pre-war consumption, stocks, etc., for each scarce com-
modity. Neither the Board nor the committees possess mandatory or
executive powers, but in fact the Board's recommended allowances
are habitually accepted by the interested governments. In a sense, the
Combined Board is the closest actual approximation to an overall
world planning body for food that has so far emerged out of the war.
Unavoidably its functions and competence tend to overlap in part
with those of UNRRA.

After UNRRA has "screened" national requirements and brought
the relief budgets of receiving countries into line with actual re-
sources, it presents the claims on food for the liberated areas to the
Combined Board. But this body has to take into account the legiti-
mate claims of all countries and bring them into line with available
supplies; and having its own service of official information, it is not
bound to accept the UNRRA claims as presented. Thus UNRRA's
food requirements during the latter half of 1945 were about 2.9 tons,
and though at the time some foods (of which the chief was wheat)
were not under allocation, she actually shipped 1.8 million tons, or
roughly 62% of requirements. 1 But of requirements for solid meat
amounting to 304,817 tons, allocations were only 63,000 tons, or
20%, and shipments a mere 18,216 tons. Requirements for edible
fats were 305,820 tons, allocations 112,950 or some 37%, while ship-
ments again were only 73,000 tons. Only as regards wheat, milk,
cheese, and some minor items did shipments almost reach "require-
ments."

1 For details cf. A Statement by the Director General on the World Food
Crisis. Council IV, Document 50, C(46) 30, 18 March 1946.

[99]

As from the first quarter of 1946, when the world food crisis had
reached the acute stage, UNRRA requirements rose steeply. They
were estimated for the first half of 1946 at about 1 million tons of
food a month. Of the 3.1 million tons required for the first three
months of the year, about 1.7 millions, or about 55%, were actually
made available. Requirements of wheat were 1.6 million tons, while
shipments reached 1.1 million tons. It is at the moment of writing
impossible to foresee the exact extent to which requirements will be
met during the second quarter. But the analysis in Chapter III leaves
little doubt that the gap between demand and supply is too great to
be closed by such efforts as the supplying countries can undertake at
short notice. By all signs the deficit in UNRRA's programme will be
as large as during the first quarter or larger. The seriousness of such
a situation is easier to understand if it is recalled that by the end of
the crop year domestic stocks in the receiving countries will be ap-
proaching or will have already reached exhaustion. Indeed, by the
end of April stocks were so low in Poland that the Government was
considering diverting seed grain to human consumption, even at the
risk of more acute shortages next year. Similar reports are being
received from Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy and other countries.

As has been pointed out above, large-scale operations by UNRRA
began in 1945; at the beginning of the year UNRRA's only active
responsibilities were those exercised in assisting the military. In
April, however, Allied military authorities transferred to it the re-
sponsibility for relief in several liberated countries, and during the
year assistance was rendered to twelve countries, though substantial
supplies began to reach the Far East only during the fourth quarter.
Cumulative shipments of food up to the end of February 1946
amounted, as seen by Table I, to 3.8 million tons (indeed to less, if
we exclude animal feeds and soap not generally included with human
food). Substantial aid (100,000 tons or more) had been received by
seven countries. At the top of the list comes Greece, which had re-
ceived 1.3 million tons, or about 35% of all food shipped to that
date. Seven other countries in eastern Europe accounted together for
1.8 million tons, or about 47% of the total. 1 Italy had received 381
thousand tons, China had got 279 thousand tons, and other countries
together 14 thousand. These figures are small, whether compared
with the needs suggested by UNRRA's own relief standards, with

1 The detailed figures (in thousand tons) are : Yugoslavia 944, Czechoslovakia
373, Poland 278, Ukrainian S.S.R. 102, Albania 59, Byelorussian S.S.R. 45, Aus-
tria 8.

[100]

TABLE I

TOTAL FOOD SHIPPED BY UNNRA UP TO MARCH 1ST, 1946 BY COMMODITY
AND COUNTRY OF DESTINATION

(Thousands of long tons]

Greece

Italy

Yugoslavia

Czecho-

Poland

slovakia

Shipped from Western Hemi-

sphere:

drains, cereals, etc.

742

297

542

170

Animal Feed

Meat & Meat Products

Eggs & Dairy Products
Vegetables, fruits, etc.

49
66

23
16

42
25

20
16

31
19

Sugar, etc.

Fats (including soap)

U.S. Army Food

108

Fish and products

Total

1241

381

882

334

249

Shipped from Eastern Hemi-

sphere:

Total

('.rand Total

1341

381

944

373

278

SOURCE: UNRRA Information for the Prris, No. 310. Washington. April isth. 1946.

figures of actual world trade, or with the amount of relief after the
first world war, when needs were smaller than now. 1

Although total UNRRA shipments increased in March 1946
amounting in all to 1.5 million gross tons shipments of food fell
below this schedule. In February the percentage of food in the total
was 46%, as compared with 70% up to January. According to such
preliminary information as is available at the time of writing, this
falling ratio of food to other commodities will be reflected also in the

1 Let it be assumed for the purpose of illustration, that the 3.8 million tons of
food shipped up to the end of February 1946 were composed of cereals, and that
they were consumed at the rate of 2650 calories per person per day; they would
suffice, then, to feed about 12 million persons during one year, though in reality,
of course, as seen in Chapter IV, calorie levels in UNRRA countries were only
fractions of the 2650 calorie a dav standard. Total relief deliveries of food after
the first world war to Europe alone amounted to 6.2 million tons (including large
quantities of lard), though needs at that period \\ere smaller than at present. Of
this quantity not less than 48 million tons were rushed in when most urgently
needed, i.e. during the critical months January-August 1919. The estimated vahu
of total food relief amounted to about 1.35 billion U.S. dollars. For further de-
tails see: League of Nations, Relief Deliveries and Relief Loans, Geneva, 1043.

[101]

TABLE I (Continued)

Ukrainian

Albania

Byelorussian

Austria

China

Others

Total

SSR

204

2073

115

0.2

0.7

214

150

388

100

102

275

3587

238

102

279

3825

March and April figures. It should not be overlooked, however, that
food shipments of a de facto relief character have reached, and no
doubt will continue to reach, needy areas independently of UNRRA.
Total post-war relief will be greater then than indicated by UNRRA
activities alone.

CHAPTER VI

MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY

FOOD, of course, is not the only factor determining- health ; during the
war most of the determinant variables of which health is a function
have developed unfavourably. Cities have been destroyed by bombing
and land warfare, and since residential building has come to a prac-
tical standstill in all belligerent countries, the housing shortage is
well-nigh universal. Many families have had to "double up" in narrow
quarters, and in the bombed-out areas live in improvised shelters or
in cellars of ruined buildings. Over-crowding has become even more
acute where whole population groups evicted from their home regions
have been moved to areas ill equipped to receive large numbers of
destitute people, or where the military have requisitioned civilian
buildings. The lack of housing affects health so much the more seri-
ously as fuel is short all over Europe, and clothing and bedding are
scarce. The meagre supplies of pre-war textiles and shoes are being
used up, and replaced, if at all, by articles of inferior quality. The
lack of soap, the almost complete absence of hot water, and the diffi-
culty of finding decent privacy have naturally affected the habits of
personal cleanliness. On top of all this, the efficiency of public health
services has lessened in many cases owing to the destruction of hospi-
tals or their requisitioning, the mobilization of doctors and nurses
for military service, and the gradual exhaustion of the supplies of
medicines, drugs and medical equipment.

Simultaneously with the deterioration of living conditions, the
demands put upon the individual have often increased. Hours of
work have generally been lengthened, and housewives have had to
spend long, weary hours in procuring and preparing the family meals.
Fatigue, the result of overwork, lack of sleep, and nervous strain,
has increased. And to these tangible factors must be added less
tangible but no less real factors of a psychological order. Aerial
bombardment, and in occupied areas the presence of the enemy, have
exposed the ]>opnlation to great nervous and physical strain. In all

[103]

the belligerent nations people shared a common anxiety as to the fate
of kin and friends ; the future appeared uncertain and dark.

In view of the interaction of the many factors which in changing
combination influence living conditions under the impact of war, the
causal connection between any one of them and the status of public
health is difficult to determine with any degree of finality. Indeed, the
relationships between food and health developments have everywhere
been complex and involved ; nowhere simple and direct.

Turning to the problem of finding statistical measurements of
health, the difficulties are almost as great. There exist no direct meas-
ures of health ; available indices are, as it were, negative in character,
relating to morbidity and mortality and thus only indirectly to health.
These statistics were even before the war neither complete nor always
reliable. Morbidity statistics, in particular, left much to be desired.
They included in general only cases of serious disease, and they often
related to deaths rather than to the number of cases of a disease.
Epidemics normally fluctuate widely from one year to another. One
should therefore avoid drawing far-reaching conclusions on per-
centage changes in such illnesses, in particular where the absolute
number of cases is small. It is desirable in order to arrive at a bal-
anced picture to take into account all sickness, for while some dis-
eases have increased, others diabetes and certain nervous disorders
are said to have decreased during the war. A warning is also in
place against drawing too far-reaching conclusions from reports
covering only a part or certain specific areas of a country. Since such
reports generally refer to localities which are urban in character and
seem on the whole to show greater increase in the incidence of illness
than the country as a whole, in so far as possible it is desirable to
use national averages. Both morbidity and mortality statistics are
likely to be least reliable in countries where health has deteriorated
the most and the administration is most disorganized by war or civil
strife.

In the following summary descriptions of the evolution of mor-
bidity and mortality during the war no attempt will be made, for the
reasons stressed above, to draw specific conclusions as to causal rela-
tionships between public health developments and changes in diets.

[104]

I. Morbidity l

In the past, almost without exception, great wars have been fol-
lowed by disastrous epidemics. The most recent wartime experience
(i.e., since 1939) seems more fortunate, and the world has so fat-
been spared serious outbreaks of this nature, due to improved
methods of epidemic control. The five international quarantine dis-
eases plague, cholera, yellow fever, smallpox and louse-borne
typhus (to which may be added louse-borne relapsing fever) nor-
mally occur more or less endemically in geographically circumscribed
areas, but are capable of spreading suddenly with great violence. All
these diseases have, as it were, been stirred up by the war, but new
outbreaks have been successfully localized. Still, some of these epi-
demics are transmitted to humans by an animal vector, and the war
has favoured their breeding and spread to such an extent that they
continue to constitute a source of further potential outbreaks.

Cholera epidemics have occurred in India, Burma and China, but
have gained little ground outside these, their usual grounds. A minor
smallpox epidemic hit Italy in the spring of 1944 and persisted into
1945, particularly around Naples, but there has been none in north-
ern Europe. Plague, which normally occurs in almost all large sea-
ports of the world, is spread by rats and rodents. Though numerous
centres of infection persist, no general outbreak has occurred, apart
from local epidemics mainly in the Suez Canal zone, Dakar and
China. Yellow fever has also, on the whole, confined its ravages to
the old loci of infection. Typhus, which together with relapsing fever
is transmitted by lice, normally flares up when personal hygiene de-
teriorates and great numbers of people are on the move. There have
been outbreaks in eastern Europe, in Italy and later in Germany; a
few cases have occurred in northern and western Europe, carried
there mainly by displaced persons, but few cases of secondary infec-
tion have been noted. If typhus has spread less than could reasonably
have been expected in the circumstances, it is due largely to the
efficiency of modern del ou sing techniques, and, after the liberation
of Europe, to the liberal use of the new powerful insecticide, D.D.T.

While modern controls have contributed to keep the pestilence dis-

1 The survey here Riven is chiefly based on the following technical sources to
which reference should be made for fuller description, analysis and qualifications

League of Nations: Weekly Epidemiological Record; Bulletin of the Health
Organisation, e.g., Vol. X, No. 4, "Health in Europe."

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, Epidemiological In-
formation Bulletin.

[105]

eases in check, certain other epidemics have increased. Fortunately,
however, influenza, the great killer after the first world war, has
not been severe. There were widespread epidemics, particularly in
the winter of 1943/44 and again in 1945, both in Europe and in the
Americas, but they were characterized by low mortality rates in-
deed, mortality has remained below expectations since 1939. Polio-
myelitis has shown a growing incidence in many countries, among
which are France, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden and the Nether-
lands. Meningitis, traditionally considered a military disease, has be-
come more common in Europe, but has been on the wane since 1941,
except in Great Britain where, however, the absolute number of
cases is low. Rather serious outbreaks have recently been reported in
Japan.

Turning to typhoid fever, the picture becomes less encouraging. It
used to be considered a typical war disease causing as many losses to
the armies in the field as enemy action. Since the introduction of
vaccination this is no longer the case, but with the destruction of
cities and the uprooting of populations, the disease has spread to
civilians. The immediate cause is probably connected with the de-
struction of the public services and the drinking of contaminated
water. A quite serious epidemic occurred in September 1939 in
Warsaw, after the bombardment of the city, and its spread has since
been determined by the progress of bombing; it appeared in the
United Kingdom in 1940 and 1941, in Germany after 1942, and
epidemically in Japan in 1945. But considering Europe alone, re-
ported cases before the end of the war rarely exceeded twice the
normal number. In Germany the incidence in 1943 the peak war
year was 2.3 times normal, as was also true in France. The in-
cidence was low in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, the Nether-
lands, Belgium, Switzerland and northern France, increasing pro-
gressively as one moved east and south from this area. But with the
end of the war, and the upheaval of life in central Europe, the situa-
tion rapidly deteriorated, until typhoid fever came to outweigh
diphtheria (previously the chief wartime epidemic) both in frequency
and in severity. The table below summarizes reported cases of typhoid
fever May to October 1945 in certain European countries.

It is likely that actual figures are higher than those reported, as
registration is bound to be less complete than before the war. Switzer-
land, the Scandinavian countries and the United Kingdom have
shown some increase, although the absolute figures remain low ; but
since the summer of 1944 a new and heavily infected area extends

[106]

Country

Number of cases reported

Index

Pre-war

1945

(pre-war median = 100)

France
Belgium
Netherlands
Germany
Bohemia-Moravia
Austria
Poland

2558
216
202
800 (est.)

80
5400 (est.)

6251
552
3215
16734
4951
1962
58943

240
260
1590
2090

2450
1090

SOURCE: United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, Epideintdogiial Information Bulletin, Vol. a, No.
a, January 1946.

from the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the Danubian plains. Its
extent and intensity render it one of the most serious epidemics of
the second world war.

Diphtheria is the disease which has shown the greatest increase
during the war, particularly on the Continent of Europe. It was
kept within bounds in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom, but it was already on the increase in Germany during the
nineteen thirties. During the summer of 1941 incidence again began
to rise and continued to rise through 1944. There were 173 thousand
cases in 1941, 283 thousand in 1943, and still more in 1944, all
within the pre-Munich territory. Case mortality remained high. From
Germany the epidemic spread to the occupied countries, and the in-
crease in the disease was greatest in those countries where the level
had previously been the lowest the Netherlands and Norway the
situation there becoming worse than in Germany. The incidence per
100,000 inhabitants in 1943, the last year for which complete returns
are available (1944 figures would be higher), was 341 in Germany,
760 in Norway, and 662 in the Netherlands. The incidence increased
112 times in Norway and 40 times in the Netherlands. The number
of cases in France rose from 13 thousand in 1940 to 47 thousand in
1943 ; the rise in Belgium was from 2 thousand in 1939 to 16 thou-
sand in 1943. In all some 630 thousand diphtheria cases were re-
ported in 1943 in such European countries as maintained tolerably
efficient registration. Considering non-reported cases, Knud Stow-
man, chief of the Epidemiological Information Service of UNRRA,
estimates that there were about one million cases in 1943 in Europe
(excluding the U.S.S.R.), and that the figure was at least as high in

[107]

1944. This disease involved about 50,000 deaths in 1943, mostly of
children. It is reported that in 1945 diphtheria had become the lead-
ing epidemic disease in Japan, with a case mortality much higher
than that encountered in Europe.

The war has also led to an extraordinary spread of various skin
diseases, no doubt largely attributable to lack of soap and hygienic
facilities. Scabies increased all over Europe ; in Norway it was seven
times as prevalent in 1943 as in 1938; in Amsterdam 75 times. It is
reported that in the devastated towns of the province of Aquila,
Italy, 85% of the population were infected and 15% in other dis-
tricts. Impetigo shows a similar alarming increase.

Among the endemic diseases tuberculosis is particularly sensitive
to prevailing social and economic conditions and above all to the
state of nutrition and output of work. As notification of illness is
universally incomplete, mortality figures are a better index of the
spread of the disease, even if they are slower than notifications to
react to change in the situation. It is well known that tuberculosis
was on the decrease in most countries in the inter-war period. This
development was reversed during the war, and one observes a greater
severity of the disease, manifesting itself in an unusual number of
acute cases, interstitial pneumonia and tuberculous broncho-pneu-
monia. Increases in mortality are noted over most of the Continent,
and were marked in Belgium, France and the Netherlands, and also
in eastern Europe, Yugoslavia and Greece. It is significant that in
France, for instance, mortality from tuberculosis per 100,000 in-
habitants in the Department of the Seine increased from 172 in 1939
to 234 in 1941, falling to 191 in 1943, whilst in Brittany (where
food was plentiful) it continued to fall, being, in the Department of
Cotes-du-Nord 257 in 1938 and 148 in 1943. The most seriously
threatened areas were Paris, Marseilles, Lyons and the cities of the
Riviera. In Greece the death rate from tuberculosis in 1942 was
456 per 100,000 inhabitants. The increase in active cases has been
accompanied by a large increase of pre-tubercular conditions and
latent tuberculosis. Where food conditions remained reasonably
good, tuberculosis has on the whole either been fairly stable or has
continued to fall. It should be noted, however, that owing to intensi-
fied industrial activity the rate has tended to go up in industrial
centres, even in the United Kingdom and the United States.

Among other endemic diseases malaria has become more severe in
war-stricken areas. In Greece malaria mortality is ordinarily high

[108]

(40 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1939), but beginning in the autumn
of 1942 there was a marked increase. Together with climatic condi-
tions favourable to the breeding of anopheles (the carriers of infec-
tion), causes for this outbreak were displacement of populations, de-
creased resistance of individuals due to hardship and famine, and
lack of quinine and other antimalarial drugs. In 1943 the incidence
decreased, but the disease remained epidemic in certain districts of
the country. It has increased also in other countries, but exact statis-
tics are rare, for malaria is essentially concentrated in poor rural
areas where people rarely resort to physicians.

War generally leads to a heavy increase in venereal disease, and
this war has been no exception; it has spread not only in belligerent
countries but in neutral countries as well. The situation has been
particularly acute in camps of foreign and conscripted labour and
areas of occupation. Syphilis case reporting has been in force only in
Scandinavia for any length of time. Between 1940 and 1944 cases
increased 7.7 times in Denmark, 6.13 times in Norway and 3.9 times
in Sweden. Fragmentary evidence indicates that, as might be ex-
pected, the situation is even less favourable on the Continent. Syphilis
was made notifiable in Belgium in 1942, and the incomplete returns
show a 70% increase between 1942 and 1944. Records of dis-
pensaries in France indicate a doubling of cases between 1941 and
1942, and again between 1942 and 1943. Unofficial reports from
other countries indicate similar developments.

The prevalence of specific deficiency diseases is almost impossible
to measure statistically. Almost all over the Continent of Europe a
loss of body weight has been noted amongst adults, and cases of
retarded growth amongst children and adolescents are common. The
loss of body weight may be partly connected with nervous tension
and greater physical activity, but it should be remembered that war-
time diets even when adequate in calories, are uniformly dull, and
that appetite forms a limiting factor in individual intake. The new-
born babies are generally underweight in low-consumption areas,
and deficiencies are grave among adolescents. Specific deficiency dis-
eases rickets, scurvy, gastro-intestinal troubles due to vitamin E 1
deficiency, and hunger-oedema have also increased, though reliable
statistics are very rare.

The reader interested in a more adequately documented technical
treatment of the behaviour of morbidity during the war should con-
sult the relevant studies published during recent years by the Health
Organisation of the League of Nations.

[109]

II. Mortality

It is obvious that over a sufficiently long period of time the many
elements influencing the health will be reflected, though in a negative
way, in changes in mortality the average expectation of life being
perhaps the best single long-range index of public health : the better
the health on an average, the lower will be the specific mortality rates.
Yet, in interpreting available statistics many reservations are needed
to avoid hasty and unfounded conclusions. It is necessary to recall,
first, that in a period such as the present, populations are exposed to
many strains which only gradually drain their vitality. Under the
effect of malnutrition and bad living conditions resistance is gradu-
ally lowered, and morbidity increases, but it requires time before
individuals have passed through the whole cycle of exhaustion and
sickness, ending in death. The cumulative effects may be relatively
slow to appear in full, and several years are needed before we can
fully estimate the war's damage to health. Secondly, one must take
into account the composition of populations in respect of age, sex,
etc. 1 Still, the general death rates are traditionally used to provide a
first general orientation to the problem. Table I shows that rate,
together with rates of births and infant deaths in European countries,
from 1938. Diagram I illustrates the development of the civilian
death rates since before the war. In considering this diagram, how-
ever, it must be borne in mind that it relates to the civilian population
only. In those countries, therefore, where large numbers of persons
have been absent in military service or on forced labour, a reduction
in the death rate would occur statistically provided specific mortality
had not changed.

The death rate continued its pre-war downward course in Den-
mark, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Switzerland (except 1944),
Ireland and Bulgaria (until 1943). All indications are that the situa-

1 In the course of nature the great majority of all deaths fall on infants and
persons over fifty. A relatively small change, therefore, in the specific mortality
of these groups, which constitute only a minority of the total population, is capa-
ble of affecting the general death rate quite considerably. The majority of people,
the young and persons in the active ages, on the other hand, have generally a low
specific mortality, and even a relatively great change in it (indicative of a serious
deterioration in health) affects the general death rate comparatively little. As
during the present war special rations have been granted to children, and other
welfare measures have been taken on their behalf, and as the old ages have been
relatively free from epidemics such as influenza, which decisively affect the mortal-
ity of the old-age groups, a stable or even slightly falling general death rate is
not inconsistent with a seriously falling level of health among the majority of
the population.

[110]

TABLE I

BIRTH RATES, DEATH RATES AND INFANT MORTALITY RATES (o/oo)
EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES, 1938-1943(44)

1938

1939

1940

Country

Birth

Death

Infant

Birth

Death

Infant

Birth

Death

Infant

Rate

Mor-

Rate

Mor-

Rate

Mor-

tality

Germany 1 A

19.0

12.0

20.5

12.7

20.4

19.6

11.6

20.4

12.3

20.0

12 8

Belgium *-J

15.8

13.1

15.3

13.8

13.4

16.1

Bulgaria 5

22.8

13.7

144

21.4

13.4

139

22.2

13.4

136

Denmark

18 1

10.3

17.8

10.1

18.3

10.4

Spain

20.0

19.1

120

16.5

18 4

135

24.4

16.5

109

Finland 1

20.9

13.0

21.1

14.7

17.7

19.8

France 4

14.6

15 4

14 6

15.5

13.8

18.9

Hungary 6

20.1

14.4

131

19.6

13.7

121

20.3

14.3

130

Italy i

23.7

14.1

106

23 5

13.4

23.4

13.6

103

Norway

15.6

10.0

15.9

10 2

16.3

10.9

Netherlands

20.5

8 5

20 6

8 6

20 8

9 9

Roumania*

29.6

19.2

183

28 3

18 6

176

26.5-

19.2*

189

United Kingdom

15.5

11.8

15.3

12 2

14.9

14.0

England and Wales 2

15.1

11.6

14.9

12 1

14 5

13.9

Scotland 2

17 7

12 6

17.4

12.9

17.1

14 4

Northern Ireland

20.0

13.7

19 5

13.5

19.6

14.6

Ireland

19.4

13 6

19.1

14 2

19 1

14.2

Sweden

14 9

11 5

15.4

11.5

15 1

11 4

Switzerland

15.2

11 6

15 2

11 8

15 2

Czechoslovakia

Bohemia Moravia

14.5

12.6

100

14.6

12.9

16.6

13.3

Slovakia 9

22.8

13.8

23.1

13.1

128

24.2

14 6

140

Portugal

26 6

15.4

137

26.2

15 3

120

24 4

15.7

126

U. S. A.

17.6

10.6

17.3

10.6

17 9

10.8

SOTFRCE: League of Nations: Statistical Year Rook, and Monthly Statistical Bulletin, where not otherwise indicated.

8 Provisional figures.

b Statistisk A arbog (1945) (Denmark).

* Stattstisk Arsbok (1943-45) (Sweden).

i A-Germany including Saar territory, Austria, Sudeten district, Danzig and Memel.

B- Reich under 1937 boundaries (including Saar territory).
1 Including war losses: England & Wales excluding military deaths abroad.

* Not including children who died, prior to registration. These would raise total 7 or 8 points. Since 1940, with-
out Eupen-Malmedy.

4 As from 1939- not including Alsace-Lorraine, 1943-44 not including Corsica.
Territory of Treaty of Neuilly.

6 Territory of Treaty of Trianon.

7 1938-39: including military deaths in Africa and Spain.

* 1940: without Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, part of Dobudja and of Transylvania; July 1941 to Dec. 1942;
with Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

9 1938: Slovakia part of Czechoslovakia (territory of 1938). 1939-42; Slovakia as defined by German-Slovak
Treaty of Nov. 21, 1939.

tion continued to improve in 1945 except possibly in Bulgaria. The
Netherlands, which had a rate of only 8.5% in 1938, the lowest of
all countries, shows an increase in 1940 and again in 1944, but it was
still only 11.5% in the latter year. In Norway the death rate remained
up to 1943 (with the exception of a slight rise in 1940) at its low

[Ill]

TABLE I (Continued)

1941

1942

1943

1944-

Birth

Death

Infant

Birth

Death

Infant

Birth

Death

Infant

Birth

Death

Infant

Rate

Mor-

Rate

Mor-

Rate

Mor-

Rate

Mor-

tality

18.9

12.5

15 2

12 3

16 2

12 6

18.6

12.2

14.9

12.2

12 4

12.1

14.6

13.1

14.7

14.8

13.5

15.2

15 7

21.3

12 5

123

21.9

12.8

127

21.1

14.2

144

18 5

10.3

20.4

9 6

21.4

9 6

22.6

10 2>

48*

19 5

18.6

143

20.1

14.7

103

22.8

13 2

24.1

13.7

16.5

15.0

20.3

13.3

21.1

18.1

13 1

17.3

14.5

16.9

15.9

16.4

16.3

19.2

18.5*

13.2-

117

19. 4

14.5*

134

20.8

13.8

115

20.4

14.2

112

20.4

14.1

15 5

9 8

17.2

10 4

18.9

9.8

20 3

21.0

9.5

23.0

10.1

24.2

11 5

25 7

19 1

168

24. 4

19.5*

183

14 6

13.0

16.0

11.6

16.7

12.0

17 8

11 7

14 1

12 8

15.6

11.5

16.2

11.9

17.5

11 6

17 5

14.1

17.6

12 6

18 4

12.9

18.5

12 4

20 9

15 2

22 9

13 3

24 2

13.4

23.5

12 8

19.0

14 6

22.3

14.1

21. 8

14. 7

22.0

15.4

15 6

11 3

17 7

9.9

19 2

10.1

20. 3

10 8*

16 9

11 1

18.4

19 2

19.6

12.0

17.2

13 5

18.6

14.7

21.6

14 2

100

21.8

14.6

24 1

14 7

135

24.3

15.2

23 7

17 4

151

23 8

16.1

131

24 9

15.3

133

25.0

14.8

122

18.9

10.5

20.9

10.4

21.5

10.9

20.3

10.6

pre-war level. On the other hand, the German death rate rose mod-
erately until 1 C M3, but according to the preliminary information
available, has since shown a pronounced increase. A similar develop-
ment is believed to have taken place since 1944 in Italy, where previ-
ously the death rate had remained fairly stationary. Bohemia-
Moravia, Belgium, Finland and France show fairly large increases
since early in the war. The French rate rose from 14.6 0/00 before
the war to no less than 19.2 0/00 in 1944. Roumania alone among
the countries included in the table showed a higher rate ( 19.2 0/00
in 1942) ; it seems likely, however, that mortality conditions have
been even more unfavourable, in some years at least, in Greece,
Poland, Yugoslavia and occupied Russia, for which countries no
reliable statistics of this kind are available for recent years.
It was shown in the foregoing that a fairly large portion of the

DIAGRAM I

CIVILIAN DEATHS PER THOUSAND INHABITANTS IN SELECTED

COUNTRIES FOR THE PERIODS 1935/39 AND 1940/44 AND FOR

THE YEAR 1944(43)

GZD 1935/39 E3 1940/44 1944

JiJ

DENMARK

SWEDEN

t'^^'M^v.--?.: 1 - ";<' j 'y^',<' v?

NETHERLANDS

I.!"' 1 ." 11 . 1 .'". 1 .'* 1 -."." 1 '. 1 .^'- 1 !'. ^''iV 1 -"-"" 1 '-*

ENGLAND
& WALES

^WTT7TrPT AMD

> . -'.1, .;" , -.,'.- .. . -. 1 .. .".". ,: -.k'- ,- '.,"^^>y -.> S W ^i

1 ^^1

nVf' 1

1 1

SCOTLAND

'-, ' -V.'y.T...^ -;..;>', .-T-piv-.-v ^-^. ; .

^j^jA

GERMANY

NT RT?T A Mil

V.;;:-. 1 - ". - T -'.-v"...'..i..-r' ,;:-... :..''-:-:':.:

_i!Jr, .:! lir'c h-'lrl

.... -1

SPAIN l

ITALY

'j.' J

BULGARIA '

HUNGARY *

BOHEMIA
& MORAVIA.

BELGIUM
FINLAND

1 f 1 1

5 10 15 20

1 1943.

M942.

[113]

deaths occur among infants under one year of age. If, as before the
war in most European countries, birth rates were on the decline,
absolute numbers of infant deaths would also fall, thereby substan-
tially reducing the general death rate. But contrary to expectations
births have on the whole shown a reversal of pre-war trends and
have increased considerably in a number of countries. As seen in
Diagram TI this holds true in overseas countries such as the United
States, Canada and New Zealand. It holds true also in the United
Kingdom in spite of the strains of war and in the relatively
favoured nations of Europe Sweden, Switzerland and Denmark.
But even more remarkable, the same trend is found in countries
more directly affected by actual warfare, and less fortunate in the
supply of food and other necessities of life. Natality increased in the
Netherlands, Norway, Czechoslovakia and Finland (in 1941, i.e.,
between the two Finno-Russian wars). But ironically enough, it de-
creased in the countries which before the war had already made the
greatest efforts to increase it. In Germany it fell from 19.6 0/00 in
1938 to 16 0/00 in 1943 ; in Italy from 23.7 0/00 to 20 0/00 during
the same period. It decreased also in Belgium, France and Bulgaria.

In consequence of this widespread increase in the birth rate, popu-
lation did not in spite of certain increases in the death rate gen-
erally decrease. Indeed, the excess of births over deaths was frequently
greater than in peacetime. Diagram III shows the development of the
relation of births to deaths.

Among the important countries included in the diagram only Bel-
gium and France show an actual decrease in population numbers
during the war ; the situation in these countries is likely to have im-
proved in 1945 and 1946. It is to be expected, however, that in this
year conditions in central Europe and Italy were much less favour-
able than during the war.

In view of the many partly conflicting forces that determine the
general death rate it would be desirable to consider separately the
mortality of infants and persons over one year of age. Little recent
information is available concerning the latter group, though an
earlier enquiry did not suggest a general increase in the specific mor-
tality of this group about 1942. 1 Infant mortality, on the other hand,
is in its own right a very sensitive index of health and well-being.
Rates are shown in Table I above, and are illustrated graphically in
Diagram IV, in which has also been plotted corresponding rates for
the first world war.

l Cf. League of Nations, Food Rationing and Supply, 1943/44, Geneva, 1944,
pag-es 73-77.

DIAGRAM II

BIRTHS PER THOUSAND INHABITANTS IN SELECTED COUN-
TRIES FOR THE PERIODS 1935/39 AND 1940/44 AND FOR THE
YEAR 1944(43)

r;!.'V"l iflflft/flfl E2ZI3 1940/44 1944(43)

I 1 I

'- ; i I 1

1 1

BOHEMIA ft mW*'J^r> &.*.':*

1 1

FI NLAND pr^' ' : " 1 " '"'""'" "

1 1

ITALY L^^^^^

>_,,.--,. v, ,-, ,-.-.. -. ;,,< -=.;.,--.._.... -.." -.V-r^^rwij J

|"^ 1 i

i i

1 ; .

.. . ... . . .. 1

SWITZERLAND j^g^^^

1 1

.--.,.._ ".....>.,_... ..I-.IL _.. iiniiHiif

^^^^^H

I 1

NORWAY tevr^-v^""

1 '.'" i. : ' j i 'J I

I 1

1 1

FRANCE ggg^jj^j

, ,;, ,.,;.,: -I

1 1

BELGIUM ty yjpy".'" "'",'."' .1

I 1

\ \ \ \

5 10 15 2

D -25

1 1943.

2 1942.

[115]

DIAGRAM III

EXCESS (4-) OR DEFICIT (-) OF BIRTHS OVER DEATHS PER

THOUSAND INHABITANTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES FOR

THE PERIODS 1935/39 AND 1940/44 AND FOR THE YEAR 1944(43)

1935/39

1940/44

I 1944(45)

Infant mortality has remained on a considerably lower level during
the second than during 1 the first world war ; at the worst a part only
of the inter-war gains was lost. In considering this unexpectedly
favourable turn of events, it is worthy of note that during the war
years the correlation between changes in infant deaths and direct
war disturbances was higher than between infant deaths and nutri-
tional levels. Most countries succeeded in safeguarding the nutri-
tional intake of children, but it was more difficult to protect the chil-
dren against the effects of displacement, the breakdown of the public
services, and so on. In Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom
and Denmark infant mortality continued to fall, and reached new
record lows despite some decrease in nutritional levels, and, in
the United Kingdom, despite aerial bombardment and partial evacua-
tion of cities. A fairly unchanged level of mortality for the war

[116]

DIAGRAM IV

INFANT MORTALITY RATES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES 1913/20
AND 1938/44

200
150
100
50

1913/20 mmmm

)38/44

200
150
100
50

BELGIUM

BULGARIA

DENMARK

~* W/ " r \

* ^-x^

**-**.+*

- >x-

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1

ENGLAND & WALES

FINLAND

FRANCE

150
100
50

200
150
100
50

^~ "^

_ ^\

-> N *- X 'N V

'X-%, s

** % **"**^

! I I 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1

i i i i i i i i

GERMANY

ITALY

NETHERLANDS

*^^^v.

^^^*J m
,^^^^r %

*-.-*

~ ^^

1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1

I i i i i 1 i i

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 SCOTLAND

SWEDEN

SWITZERLAND

_xv

.^*N.*..

*^ **

^^X-

I 1 t 1 I 1 1 1

rrrrr-r, .

\ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1913 15 17 20
38 40 42 44

1913 JO 17 20 1013 15 17 20
38 40 42 44 38 40 42 44

[117]

period as a whole is to be noted in the case of Czechoslovakia, Bul-
garia and Norway, and except during the periods of actual warfare,
in Finland. In the Netherlands the rate increased in 1944, but was
still low (44 0/00). The higher Belgian rate also increased during
the war, but not seriously, whilst in France the rate went up sharply
from 66 0/00 in 1938 to 92 0/00 in 1940, and though it recovered
subsequently, it still stood at 77 0/00 in 1944. In spite of differences
in nutritional levels, the situation was fairly similar in Germany,
where the rate increased from 62 0/00 in 1938 to 72 0/00 in 1944.
It also rose in Italy. Though we lack reliable information, there is
evidence to suggest that the ordinarily high rates in eastern Europe
and the Balkans were enhanced during the war, particularly in Po-
land, parts of Yugoslavia and Greece. Indeed, in the Athens-Piraeus
area the infant mortality rate in the famine year, 1942, was 231 0/00
or 2.6 times the pre-war rate.

The development of infantile mortality in 1945 was in many of
the European countries less favourable than during the preceding
war years. The deterioration was partly connected with the sweeping
land warfare, the heavy aerial bombardments and the consequent
breakdown of public services, communications and administration, as
well as the displacement of populations ; but it reflects also, no doubt,
the further deterioration in the supply situation over wide areas.
National statistics are not as yet available, but the returns of infant
mortality in the larger European cities may serve to illustrate the
trend in the various countries.

Sweden

Nor-

Den-

Great

Nether-

Bel-

France

Italy

Spain

(Stock-

way

mark

Britain

lands

gium

holm)

(Oslo)

(Copen-

(126

cities)*

cities)"

hagen)

cities)

cities)*

1939

141

1944

107

1945

107

124

Arithmetic average.

SOURCE: United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, Epidrmiologtcol Information Bulletin, Vol. a.

No. 3, February, 1946.

The situation remained favourable on the whole in Scandinavia,
the United Kingdom and, relatively speaking, in Spain, where the
level was receding from the very high levels recorded during the
Civil War. In the Netherlands there was a three-fold increase com-
pared with 1939, reflecting the unusually difficult situation of this

[118]

country during the prolonged period of liberation. In eastern France
and central Italy the rate more than doubled, though the national
averages increased less. The situation in Germany also deteriorated
greatly and suddenly. According to information published by
UNRRA * the infantile mortality rate reached 145 0/00 in Ham-
burg in November 1945, or about three times the 1938 rate. During
the five- week period ending October 12th, 1945, it rose to 231 0/00
in Berlin, or almost exactly the same rate as was registered for the
Athens-Piraeus area during the famine in 1942. It is stated that the
rate in Vienna in the summer of 1945 reached 328 0/00. It is to be
feared that similar or higher rates prevailed also in Hungary and
Roumania. While the situation in the west of Europe has improved
in 1946, it is likely that conditions in central and eastern Europe
and probably in Italy remain as bad as or worse than in 1945.

III. Summary of Morbidity and Mortality Developments

In summing up the evidence examined above it is necessary to con-
sider separately the war years and the period after the conclusion of
hostilities.

During the war period the data point to a health situation which
in analogy with the food situation became more and more diversified
along regional lines. The United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland and
Denmark succeeded not only in preventing deterioration of health,
but by all the signs, in further improving their, relatively speaking,
high pre-war standards. The Netherlands, Norway and Czecho-
slovakia, and, during most of that period, Finland, succeeded in
avoiding serious deterioration, though pre-war gains were partly lost
or at any rate not improved upon. It is still too early to know, however,
whether or not the populations of these countries have incurred en-
during damage to their health. In Germany, France and Italy the
situation was more serious. Both morbidity and infant mortality
went up decidedly, if unevenly, in different localities and for different
classes of the population. Large groups seem to have lived under
conditions which may have lasting effects on their future health.
Eastern and southern Europe form an area ordinarily characterized
by high mortality and low expectation of life, and conditions do not
seem to have deteriorated greatly during the war in Bulgaria, Hun-
gary and Roumania ; in some parts they may even have improved.
No direct statistics are available for Poland, Yugoslavia or Russia,

1 Op. dt.

[119]

in parts of which these conditions were no doubt as bad as in Greece
during the famine of 1942 and later; in that country all indices of
morbidity and mortality reacted violently, indicating a very serious
deterioration of health and high mortality.

The conclusion of hostilities did not noticeably affect conditions
in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland; they
improved on the whole after liberation in France, the Netherlands,
Norway, Finland and Belgium. On the other hand, they grew much
worse in Germany and Italy and remained bad over most of eastern
and southern Furope, though some improvements may have taken
place locally. Conditions in Bulgaria, Roumania and Hungary are
no doubt as bad as or worse than in Greece and Yugoslavia,

APPENDIX

LEGAL FOOD RATIONS BY COUNTRIES, 1940-1945

EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE APPENDIX

NOTE: The figures are, in most casea, supplied by governments. In some cases, however, official and non-official
sources of varying value have been employed. Rations are given in grammes per week (i ounce = 28.4 grammes) and
relate, in general, to the middle of each quarter.

The sign "r" indicates that the item is rationed, but that no figures are available as to the size of the ration.

The sign "l.r." indicates that the item is locally rationed and that no national averages are obtainable.

The sign "p.r." indicates that the item is on "point rationing" and that no national average can be given.

"Blank" indicates that no information is available. Foods not included in the tables are presumed to be free.

() Weekly rations, except in the cases of four week ration periods, are calculated on the basis of a 4.3 week month

(b) 100 grammes of flour- 130 grammes of soft bread.

() Generally including dried beans and peas.

(d) Meat: as purchased, including bone and waste, unless otherwise indicated.

() Fats: all fats including butter, margarine, lard and vegetable oil.

(f) Substitute or mixture.

[123]

THE BALTIC STATES
(Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia)

Consumer Category

1942

1943

1944

I II III IV

I II III

Hread and Flour 00
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Young Persons 6-18 yrs.
Night and Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

1750 1750 1700 1700
r. r. 775 775
r. r. 1000 1000
r. r. 2200 2200
r. r. 2900 2900
r. r. 3700 3700

1700 1700 1700 1700
775 775 775 775
1000 1000 1000 1000
2200 2200 2200 2200
2900 2900 2900 2900
3700 3700 3700 3700

2000 2000 2000
1000 1000 1000
1100 1100 1100
2700 2700 2700
3400 3400 3400
4400 4400 4400

Cereals ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years

150 150
275 275
210 210

150 150 150 150
275 275 275 275
210 210 210 210

150 150 150
275 275 275
210 210 210

Potatoes
All Consumers

I. r. 1. r.

2000 2000 2000 2000

2000 2000 2000

Sugar
Normal Consumer
Children 0-6 years

200 200 150 150
r. r. 200 200

150 150 150 150
200 200 200 200

150 150 150
200 200 200

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

l.r. I. r.

I. r. 1. r. 1. r. 1 r.

1. r. I. r. 1. r.

Meat, Meat Prod. ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-6 years
Young Persons 6-18 yrs.
Night Worker
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

300 300 250 250
r. r. 125 125
r. r. 300 300

r. r. 375 375
r. r. 500 500

r. r. 725 725

250 250 250 250
125 125 125 125
300 300 300 300

375 375 375 375
500 500 500 500

725 725 725 725

250 250 250
125 125 125
300 300 300
375 375 375
500 500 500
725 725 725

Fats ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Young Persons 6-18 yrs.
Night Worker
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker .

200 200 180 180
r. r. 100 100
r. r. 160 160
r. r. 230 230
r. r. 190 190
r. r. 260 260
r. r. 490 490

180 180 180 180
100 100 100 100
160 160 160 160
230 230 230 230
190 190 200 200
260 260 260 260
490 490 490 490

180 180 180
100 100 100
160 160 160
230 230 230
200 200 200
260 260 260
490 490 490

Liquid Milk
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Young Persons 6-18 yrs.

5250 5250 5250
r. 3500*3500'
r. 1750 1750

5250 5250 5250 5250
3500'3500'3500'3500'
1750 1750 1750 1750

5250 5250 5250
3500'3500'3500'
1750 1750 1750

Cheese
All Consumers

l.r. l.r. l.r.

l.r. l.r. l.r. l.r.

l.r. l.r. l.r.

Eggs
All Consumers

l.r. l.r. l.r.

l.r. l.r. l.r. l.r.

l.r. l.r. l.r.

Coffee (0
All Consumers

80 80 80

80 80 80 80

80 80 80

1 Expectant and nursing mothers received the same ration.

[124]
BELGIUM

1942

III

Bread and FlourPO

Normal Consumer

1575

1570

Light Worker

2025

2020

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2475
2925

2470
2920

Miners

3825

3820

Cereals ()

All Consumers

130

Potatoes

All Consumers

3500

Sugar

All Consumers

230

Jam, Honey

All Consumers

105

Meat, Meat Products ()

Normal Consumer

350

245

140

Light Worker

315

210

Heavy Worker

385

280

Very Heavy Worker

455

350

Miners

525

420

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

125

105

Light Worker

170

160

135

Heavy Worker

240

225

205

Very Heavy Worker

305

290

270

Miners

705

685

665

Liquid Milk

Children 0-3 years

5250

Children 3-6 years

3500

Children 6-14 years

1750

Young People 14-18 yrs.

1750

Cheese

All Consumers

125

Eggs

All Consumers

1 r

l.r.

l,r

l.r.

Coffee

Normal Consumer

1 Alternate rations; 1820 grammes farina, or 875 grammes alimentary pastes, or 875 grammes biscuit, or 1400 grammes
bread, or 2450 grammes pastry or 875 grammes grain foods.

* Expectant mothers receive 4000 grammes per month from the fourth month of pregnancy to the second month after
birth.

Alternate rations; 2065 grammes farina, or 1400 grammes alimentary pastes, or 875 grammes biscuit, or 875 grammes
s oedal foods, or 1750 grammes pastry or 1750 grammes grain foods.

"Alternate rations; 210 grammes honey, or 180 grammes preserved fruit, or 125 grammes candy, or 125 grammes
vanilla, *or iis'addJUona] grammes sugar.

i Plus 25 grammes sausage. September-October, 1945; plus 50 grammes sausage, zoo grammes pate' de foie or
sterilized meat.

[125]
BELGIUM

1943

1944

1945

III

1570

1575

1750

2100

1750

2100

2440'

2845v

2790

2020

2025

2250

2700

2250

3200

2470

2475

2750

3300

2750

4000

2920

2925

2930

3900

3250

4400

3820

3825

4250

5100

4250

6000

175

120

115

120

3500

3490

2095

230

155

140

210

210*

210<

175

210

140

140s

140

245

245*

235s

280

180

210*

210s

385

250

350

220

280$

280s

560

420

260

350s

740

490

300

420s

910

105

115

140^

230

255'

135

145

170

135

125

200

210

235

165

160

280

300

195

185

665

675

700

375

365

5250

3500

1750

l.r.

65"'

65"

35"

80"

' Expectant mothers receive 1350 grammes extra per month from the seventh month of pregnancy.
7 Including 35 grammes of margarine.

Including 150 grammes of margarine, 60 grammes of butter. Light worker received 43S grammes extra; heavy
worker 650; very heavy worker 1300; miner 3900.

Including a September-October ration of 100 grammes fat pork.
' Dried eggs (in grammes).

'* Rations in 1945 of real coffee. In addjtjon, rations of chicory, fluctuating between 10 and 30 grammes per week.

[126]

BULGARIA

ategory

1942

1943

1944

II III IV

I II III IV

I II III

Bread and Flour (>)
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Children 1-5 years
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2425'
1375'
1375'
4525'
5575'

2425' 2425' 2425'
1375' 1375' 1375'
1375' 1375' 1375'
4525' 4525' 4525'
5575' 5575' 5575 1

2100 1750 1750 3865'
875 875 875 1765'
1225 1225 1225 1765'
3850 3500 3500 5615'
4725 4375 4375 7365'

3865' 3865' 3515'
1765' 1765' 1765'
1765' 1765' 1765'
5615' 5515' 5055'
7365' 7365' 6665'

Cereals ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-5 vears

375

r. 1003 1003

375 475 475

1003 1003 1003 1003

1003 5Q3 50J

Sugar
All Consumers

235 250 250

250 250 250 375

375 125 125

Meat, Meat Prod. (<*)
All Consumers

Free

400 200

400 500 400 400

400 400 400

Fats ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-5 years

250
100

250 200s 250s
100 100 6 100

250s 250s 2505 200s
100 100* 100 100 6

2005 2005 200s
100 100 6 50*

Liquid Milk

Children 0-1 year
Children 1-5 years

r. r.
r. r.

5250 5250 5250 5250
3500 3500 3500 3500

5250
3500 r. 3500

Cheese
Normal Consumer
Children 0-5 years

100
200

100 50 r.
200 100 r.

100 95 75 75
200 200 150 150

75 50 50
150 r. r.

1 Including 250 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

Including 280 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Rice.

Two meatless days a week.
< Lard and oil.

Butter.

CANADA

Consumer Category

1942

1943

III

Sugar
All Consumers

Free

225

225 '

225'

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

Free

115'

Meat, Meat Prod. (>)
AH Consumers

Free

455-3
1360

455-J
1360

Fata ()
All Consumers

Free

225

150

225

Coffee
All Consumers

Free

115*

150*

1154

115*

115

150

Additional 10 pounds of sugar per year for home preserving.

Monthly preserve ration may be exchanged for one naif pound of sugar.

[127]

CROATIA

Consumer Category

1942

1943

1944

I II III IV

Bread and Flour 0)
Normal Consumer
Heavy Worker

Cereals ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-2 years

1400 1400 1050 1050
2800 2800 2100 2100

1050 1050 1150' 1150'

1375' 1375' 1375* 1375'

115 115 115 115
55 55 55 55

115 115 115 115

55 55 55 55

Potatoes
Normal Consumer
Children 0-2 years

2100
1050

2100 2100 r. r.
1050 1050 r. r.

2000 2000 1500 1500
1000 1000 r. r.

Sugar
Normal Consumer

375 125 125 125

75 75 75 75

Meat, Meat Prod. (<*)
Normal Consumer

300 300 300 150

150 150 250 250

250 250 250 250

Fats ()
All Consumers

125 125 150 100

50 75 110 110

110 110 60 60

Liquid Milk
Children 0-2 years
Children 2-5 years

5250 5250 5250 5250
3500 3500 3500 3500

3500 3500 3500 3500
3500 3500 3500 3500

Cheese
All Consumers

K?8 S (pieces)
All Consumers

100 100 100 100
1111

1 1 1

1 Including 75 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Including 350 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

CANADA (Continued)

Consumer Category

1944

1945

III

II III

Sugar
All Consumers

225 '

225'

225 115

115

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

115'

Free Free

Free

Meat, Meat Prod. (<)
All Consumers

455-
1360

Free

Free Free

Free

Fats ()
All Consumers

170

200

170

200

Coffee
All Consumers

150<

225*

225

Free

Free Free

Free

Cuta containing more than 50% bone, fancy meats and certain prepared meats, such as frankfurters, smoked
sausage and cooked meats exempt.

Persons over 12 years of age. Tea may be had alternatively.

[128]

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Consumer Category

1940

1941

I II III IV

Bread and Flour b
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Children 6-10 years
Children 10-14 years
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2900 2650 2650 2250
1300 1300 1300 1100
1300 1300 1300 1100
2100 2100 2100 1900
2900 2650 2650 2250
3800 3800 3800 3400
4800 4800 4800 4400

2250 2250 2250 2250
1100 1100 1100 1100
1100 1100 1100 1100
1900 1900 1700 1700
2250 2250 2250 2250
3650 3650 3650 3650
4650 4650 4650 4650

Cereals ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years

600 355 355 355
175 175 175 175
175 175 175 175

410 150 150 185

175 175 175 175
175 175 175 175

Potatoes
All Consumers

3000

Sugar
All Consumers

350 300 300 300

300 300 300 300

Jam, Honey
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-14 years

205
240
240

Meat, Meat Prod, (a)
Normal Consumer
Children 0-6 years
Children 6-14 years
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

500 500 575 500
250 250 300 250
500 500 575 500
1000 1000 1075 1000
1200 1200 1275 1200

500 500 400 400
250 250 250 250
500 500 500 400
1000 1000 800 800
1200 1200 1000 1000

Fats (.)
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Children 6-14 years
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

155 155 155 155
80 80 125 125
80 80 125 125
200 200 200 200
185 275 275 260
340 620 620 565

155 155 155 175
125 125 125 125
125 125 125 125
200 200 200 200
275 285 290 280
620 630 645 625

Liquid Milk
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years
Children 3-6 years
Children 6-14 years

r. r. r. r.
5250 5250 5250 5250
5250 5250 5250 5250
1750 1750 1750 1750

5250 5250 5250 5250
5250 5250 5250 5250
1750 1750 1750 1750

Eggs
All Consumers

1 1.5 1 1

1.5 3 1 1

Coffee (')
Normal Consumer
Heavy Worker and Very
Heavy Worker

100 r. r. r.
r. r. r. r.

[129]

(PROTECTORATE)

1942

1943

1944

1945

I II III IV

I II III

2250 2250 2250 2250
1100 1100 1100 1100
1100 1200 1200 1200
1700 1700 1700 1700
2250 2250 2600 2600
3650 3650 3650 3650
4650 4650 4650 4650

2250 2250 2325 2425
1100 1100 1175 1275
1200 1200 1275 1375
1700 1700 1775 2000
2600 2600 2675 2775
3650 3650 3725 3825
4650 4650 4725 4825

2425 2425 2425 2225
1275 1275 1275 1175
1375 1375 1375 1275
2000 2000 2000 2000
2775 2775 2775 2775
3825 3825 3825 3625
4825 4825 4825 4625

2225 1700 1700
1175 1000 1000
1275 1000 1000
2000 2000 2000
2275 2000 2000
3625 2800 2800
4625 3300 3300

150 150 150 150
175 125 125 125
175 60 60 60

180 150 250 150
125 125 125 125
60 60 60 60

150 150 150 150
125 125 125 125
60 60 60 60

150 50 75
125 85 85
60 40 85

3000 3000 3000 3500

3500 3500 2500 2500

2500 1500 2500 3000

3000 2000 2000

300 300 300 300

300 300 300

205 205 205 205
235 235 235 235
235 235 235 235

205 205 230
235 235 265
235 235 270

400 300 300 350
250 150 150 200
400 350 350 400
800 600 600 700
1000 850 850 950

350 350 250 250
200 200 100 100
400 400 300 300
700 700 600 600
950 950 850 850

250 250 250 250
100 100 100 100
300 300 300 300
600 600 600 600
850 850 850 850

250 185 185
100 100 100
300 240 240
600 535 535
850 785 785

170 175 155 155
125 125 125 125
125 125 125 125
200 200 200 200
290 285 265 265
635 630 555 555

165 165 175 175
125 125 135 135
125 125 135 135
200 200 210 210

265 265 275 275
575 575 545 545

175 175 175 175
135 135 135 135
135 135 135 135
210 210 210 210

275 275 275 275
545 545 545 545

75 100 90
105 70 125
140 100 125
150 150 240
145 155 145
415 305 295

875 875 875 875
5250 5250 5250 5250
5250 5250 5250 5250
1750 1750 1750 1750

330 435' 875 ' 875'
5250 5250 5250 5250
5250 5250 5250 5250
1750 1750 1750 1750

435 ' 435 435' 435'
5250 5250 5250 5250
5250 5250 5250 5250
1750 1750 1750 1750

435 ' 435 J 435 '
5250 5250 3500
3500 3500 3500
1750 1750 1750

.5111

1111

1 1 .5 1

125 100 75 75

75 75 75 75

r. r. 110 110

110 110 110 110

i Skimmed milk.

[130]

DENMARK

Consumer Category

1941

1942

III

Ill

Bread and Flour (>)

Normal Consumer

2280

2300

2375'

Children 0-6 years

1190

1220

1210

1205

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2980
3680

3010
3710

3000
3700

2995
3695

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer

235

310

Children 0-6 years

235

310

Heavy W'orker

350

505

Very Heavy Worker

465

700

Sugar
All Consumers

465

700^

465*

465

625s

465

Fats (Butter)

All Consumers*

350

315

300

Coffee (0

Normal Consumer

NOTE: Salt was rationed in February 1945 at 35 grammes per person per week. For the second and third quarter!
of 1945, 30 grammes per week.

1 Including 60 grammea of wheat flour in terms of bread.

In addition, for the month of December, an extra ration of 140 grammes of white bread or 115 grammes of wheat
flour per week.

Including 235 grammes per week extra.

[131]

DENMARK

1943

1944

1945

Ill

III

2375'
1205
2995
3695

2375 '
1205
2995
3695

2375'
1205
2995
3695

2370'
1285
3070
3770

2370
1285
3070
3770

2370
1285
3070

3770

2370
1285
3070
3770

310
310
505
700

310
310

505
700

310
310
505
700

350

5055

350 6

350

3507

350

300

250

In addition, for the month of December, 235 grammes of sugar or 30 grammes of coffee or 10 grammes of tea or
30 grammes of cocoa per week.

Including an extra ration of 155 grammes per week.

In addition, for the month of December, an extra ration of 235 grammes per week.

In addition, for the month of June, an extra ration of 465 grammes per week.

8 In addition, certain extra rations of margarine of 115-150 grammes per week were granted to adults in lower in-
come groups during the first two quarters of 1941.

[132]
FINLAND

1940

1941

1942

III IV

I II III IV

Bread and Flour 1 (>), ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Children 1-3 years
Adolescents 14-17 yrs.
Light Worker
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2080 1730
1560 1385
1560 1385
2080 1730
2080 1730
3110 3110
4150 4150

1730 1615 1385 1385
1385 1385 1385 1385
1385 1385 1385 1385
1730 1615 1385 1385
1730 1615 1385 1730
3110 2780 2100 2100
4150 3750 2955 2955

1385 1385 1385 1615
1385 1040 1040 1040
1385 1385 1385 1385
1730 1730 1730 1960
1730 1730 1730 1960
2100 2450 2450 2660
2955 3140 3140 3355

Potatoes
All Consumers

Sugar
Normal Consumer

210 175

190 230 365 290

290 230 175 135

Children 0-1 year
Children 1-17 years
Light Worker
Heavy Worker and
Very Heavy Worker

210 175
210 175

210 175

190 230 265 290
190 230 365 290

190 230 365 290

290 230 175 135
290 230 175 135

365 290 175 135

Meat, Meat Prod. (<>)
Normal Consumer
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

370 285 170 270
270 350 335 470
370 350 335 470

160 115 100 135
315 200 150 180

315 235 200 235

Fats ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Children 1-17 years
Light Worker
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

175
175
175
175
175
280

200 220 175 115
200 270 200 160
200 270 200 160
200 220 175 115
200 280 230 180
200 280 230 180

75 90 90 100
115 140 140 150
115 140 140 150
90 115 115 130
115 140 140 150
115 140 140 150

1 iquid Milk
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Children 1-17 years

2100 2100 2100 1500
7000 7000 7000 7000
4200 4200 4200 4200

1400 1400 1400 1400
7000 7000 7000 7000
4200 4200 4200 4200

Cheese
All Consumers

1 r 1 r

1 r 1 r 1. r. 1 r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

Eggs s
All Consumers

1 r 1 r

1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r

1 r l.r 1. r. 1. r.

Coffee <(0
All Consumers

70 115

75 75 75 75

40 40 40 40

1 Including cereals and cereal products of all kinds. The data given above are given in terms of flour.
Children 0-6 months 235 grammes; children 6 months 350 grammes; children 6-12 months 175 grammes.

[133]

FINLAND

1943

1944

1945

III

1730

1560

1730

1615

1040

1385

2080

1920

2080

1770

2080

1920

2080

1770

2770

2600

2700

2770

2310

3460

3140

3110

2650

1. r.

1 r

l.r.

1 r.

l.r.

\ r

115

155

135

115

155

135

115

155

135

115

155

135

115

100

120

230

200

360

215

625

155

110

U>0

150

100

315

260

435

290

840

230

170

240

200

190

130

405

330

520

385

840

230

170

240

115

110

150

190

115

160

175

160

200

250

175

140

180

250

175

160

200

250

175

160

200

250

175

1400

1800

2100

1600

1400

1600

7000

6500

6.100

6300

4200

] r

I. r.

1. r.

l.r.

1. r.

l.r.

1 r

i. r.

1 r.

l.r.

1 r.

l.r.

1 r

1 Towns and densely populated area*.
Substitute after 1941.

[134]
FRANCE

Consumer Category

1942

III

Bread and Flour ( b )

Normal Consumer

2350

1925

Children 0-3 years

800

700

780'

Children 3-6 years

1500

1400

1480*

1480'

Children 6-13 years

2200

1925

Young people 13-21 yrs.

2200

1925

2450

People over 70 years

1500

1400

1480'

Heavy Worker

2900

2450

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer

140

100

Children 0-3 years

160

140

135

7<;

Children 3-6 years

140

100

110

Potatoes

All Consumers

1. r.

l.r.

1. r

1 r

Sugar

Normal Consumer

115

Children 0-3 years

235

290

Children 3-6 years

115

Young people 13-21 yrs.

115

Meat, Meat Prod. (<i)s

Normal Consumer

360

250

ISO- 6

180- 6

125

Young people 13-21 yrs.

360

250

180- 6

26 5- "

265- 6

125

210

Heavy Worker

360

355

285- 6

230

Very Heavy W 7 orker

360

460

390-

390- "

390- 6

335

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

100

125

120

100

Children 0-3 years

100

125

120

100

Heavy Worker

100

195

220

170

Very Heavy Worker

100

265

290

240

Liquid Milk

Children 0-3 years

5250

Children 3-6 years

5250

Children 6-13 years

1750

Cheese

All Consumers

Eggs

All Consumers

1 r

l.r.

1 r

l.r.

Coffee (0

All Consumers

Including 60 grammes of flour in tcrma of bread.

Including 155 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

Including 125 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Including 115 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

[135]

FRANCE

1943

1944

1945

III

1925

2100

2450

Free

780 1

780'

780 '

955'

1040

10403

875

1025<

Free

1480'

1480 1

1480'

1655'

1740

1740*

1750

1900*

1900<

Free

1925

2100

2450

Free

2450

2625

Free

1480'

1480 1

1480'

1655'

1655J

2450

Free

2450

Free

140

160

115

1 r.

l.r.

115

175

115

290

115

145

115

145

175

115

180- 6

120

180

180- 6

150- 6

100

100- 6

125

250

150

265- 6

205

160

150-'

150- 6

210

250

285- 6

225

250

230

390- 6

330

250

335

70- 6

70-

70- <

70-

35-

40-

40-*

60-

60- *

115

60-

145

140- 6

140-

90- 6

95-

90-

85- 6

140

120

220

210- 6

140- 6

145-'

145-

150- 6

160

190

130

135

130

5250

3500

5250

1750

1 r

l.r.

1 r

1 r.

1 r

] r

1 r.

l.r.

1 r

Excluding permitted family slaughter.

* Urban and rural areas respectively.

' Including pregnant women and persons on special diets.

[136]

GERMANY

1940

1941

Ill

III

Bread and Flour (>)

Normal Consumer

2400

2250

Children 0-3 years

1100

Children 3-6 years

1100

Children 6-10 years

1700

Young persons 10-20 yrs.

2400

2600

Night Worker

2850

Heavy Worker

3800

3650

Very Heavy Worker

4800

4650

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer

75-

150

Children 0-3 years

275

Children 3-6 years

210

Potatoes

All Consumers

Free

Sugar 1

All Consumers

250

225

Jam, Honey

Normal Consumer

110

160

185

Children 0-6 years

130

180

205

Children 6-14 years

230

255

Meat, Meat Prod. ()

Normal Consumer

500

400

Children 0-6 years

250

2 C

250

Young persons 6-20 yrs.

500

400

Night Worker

600

Heavy Worker

1000

800

Very Heavy Worker

1200

1000

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

270

Children 0-3 years

125

Children 3-6 years

190

Children 6-14 years

260

265

Young persons 14-20 yrs.
Night Worker

300
290

Heavy Worker

395

Very Heavy Worker

740

Liquid Milk a

Normal Consumer 3

1. r

1. r.

1 r.

1. r.

Children 0-3 years

5250

Children 3-6 years

3500

Children 6-14 years

1750

Cheese and Curds

All Consumers

Eggs
All Consumers

1. r

1 r.

1. r.

1 r

1. r.

Coffee (')

Normal Consumer

100

1 Excluding yearly rations for home canning and preserving.
' Nuraing and expectant mothers 3500 gramme*.

[137]

GERMANY

19'

>44

1945

I II

III

2250 2000

2000

2250

2325

2425

2225

1100 900

900

1100

1175

1275

1175

175

1100 1200

1200

1275

1375

1275

275

1700 1700

1700

1775

2000

2600 2600

2600

2675

2775

2850 2600

2600

2850

2925

3125

3650 3400

3400

3650

3725

3825

3625

4650 4400

4400

4650

4725

4825

4525

150 150

150

140

275 275

275

265

210 210

210

200

Free 1. r.

I r

1. r

225 225

225

220

185 185

185

205 205

205

255 255

255

225

270

400 300

300

350

250

250 150

150

200

100

400 350

350

400

300

600 450

450

550

450

800 600

600

700

600

1000 850

850

950

850

270 205

200

210

220

185

210

235

270

125 125

125

135

130

135

155

190 190

190

200

195

200

250

265 265

265

275

280

275

270

290

330

300 265

265

275

280

245

270

280

330

290 225

220

230

240

205

230

255

290

410 305

300

310

320

285

310

335

370

390

740 575

570

580

590

555

580

605

655

1 r. 1 r

1 r

I r

1120

900

5250 5250

5250

3500 3500

3500

1750 1750

1750

3500

65 65

1. r. 1. r.

1 r.

1. r.

] r

1 r

1 r.

1. r.

1 r

1. r.

I. r.

100 80

Normal consumer received skimmed milk only.
Including 30 grammes of quark.

[138]

HUNGARY

Consumer Category

1942

1943

III

Ill

Bread and Flour 0>)

Normal Consumer

2350'

2000'

1660'

16403

2050'

2660

Heavy Worker

3400'

3050'

2710'

24803

3100'

3710*

Very Heavy Worker

4800

4450'

4110'

360QJ

36003

4500 '

5110*

Cereals ()

All Consumers

100

Potatoes

All Consumers

l.r.

2000

1000s

l.r.

2000

Sugar

Normal Consumer

260-

80'

80 6

Children 0-14 years

260-

130<

130 6

130'

130 6

130"

130 6

Meat, Meat Prod. (<)

All Consumers

l.r.

1 r.

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

160

140

Heavy Worker

250

225

Liquid Milk

Children 0-3 years 1 .'

7000

5000

5250

Children 3-14 years'

3500

All Consumers

Coffee (0

All Consumers

1 r

| r

1 r.

1. r.

l.r.

1 r

1 Including 460 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

* Including 200 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Including 400 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

Including 700 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

[139]

HUNGARY

Consumer Category

1944

1945

Ill

Bread and Flour

Normal Consumer

2660

2660*

2400 '

1400

Heavy Worker

3710

3710<

2240

2450

Very Heavy Worker

51104

3360

3950

Cereals ()

All Consumers

125

Potatoes

All Consumers

2000

3000

Sugar

Normal Consumer

260-

125-

60-

80 6

80 <

Children 0-14 years

260-

125

130

130 6

Meat, Meat Prod. (*)

All Consumers

l.r.

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

140s

1405

Heavy Worker

2255

225s

2255

225s

Liquid Milk

Children 0-3 years S.T

5250

5250"

5250

Children 3-14 years*

3500

Fggs

All Consumers

Coffee ()

All Consumers

l.r.

' Budapest.

* Budapest and rural areas respectively,
t Including nursing and expectant mothers.
1 Children under i year 7000 grammes.

[140]

IRELAND

Consumer Category

1941

1942

I II III IV

I II III

Tea

All Consumers

30 15 30 30

15 15 15

Sugar
All Consumers

455 455

455 340 225

225

Cocoa
All Consumers

115 115 115

115

Butter
All Consumers

340'

225'

Bacon
All Consumers *

82^ 59

32K

1 Metropolitan areas only.

Including 55 grammes of margarine.

ITALY

Consumer Category

1941

1942

I II III IV

II III IV

Bread and Flour ()
Normal Consumer
Children and Adolescents
9-18 years
Light Worker
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

1400

2100
2800
3500

1400

2100
2100
3500

1050 1050 1050

r. r. 1400
1750 1750 2100
2450 2450 2800
3150 3150 3500

Cereals ()*
Normal Consumer

500 r. r. r.

465

465 465 500

Heavy and Very Heavy
Worker

610 r. r. r.

600

600 600 600

Potatoes
All Consumers

Sugar
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years

1 r 1 r 1 r I r

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

140 140 140 115
140 140 140 115

115
115

115 115 115
140 140 230

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

Meat and Meat Prod. ()
All Consumers

Fats ()
All Consumers

1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

r. 300 r. 80-
200

180 90 90 90

350
90

130-4 l30-< 130-
150- 150- 150-
100 100 100

90 90 90

Liquid Milk
All Consumers

Cheese
All Consumers

Eggs
All Consumers

Coffee (0
All Consumers

I r 1 r 1 r 1 r

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

l.r Lr. 1 r. I r.

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

l.r. l.r. l.r. l.r.

l.r.

1. r. 1. r. 1. r.

1 Normal consumer in Southern Italy aioo grammes.
* Rural and urban areas respectively.

Normal consumer in Southern Italy received 510 grammes per week during the first quarter of 1944; 5 60 during
the first quarter of 1945, 510 during the third quarter and 465 during the fourth quarter.

[141]

IRELAND

1943

1944

1945

I II III IV

I II III

30 20 20 20

20 20 15 20

20 15 30

225 340 340 340

340 340 340 340

340 340 225

115 115 225

225 ' 225 225 225

170 170 170 225

225 '

45 44 25 25

33^ 40 33K 45

33K 50 33K

Percentages of quantities purchased during the year ended March 31, 1941-

ITALY

1943

1944

1945

Ill

1050

1400

1400'

1400

1050

1400

1400
2100
2800
3500

1050
1750
2450
3150

1050

2450
3150

1575

2475
3475

1925

2625
4025

1925
2625
3325
4025

1925

3625
4025

1925

3625
4025

1575
2275
2975
3675

r.
r.

2800-
4200'

465

600

605

l.r.

115

230

115

230

115
230

30
230

115

230

55
115

30
115

l.r.

130-4
150-
100

130-
150-
100

115-
75

30-'
80

60-'
120

100

180

150

180

l.r.

l.r.*

l.r.s

l.r.

Northern, Central and Southern Italy respectively.

i Children under i year 7000 grammes; old people 1750 grammes.

[142]

THE NETHERLANDS

Consumer Category

1940

1941

III

Bread and Flour 0>)

Normal Consumer

Free

2000

2080 1

2090 '

2390 '

2090'

1890'

Children 0-4 years

Free

2000

1480'

1090'

1240'

1090'

990'

Children 5-14 years

Free

2000

2080 1

2090'

2090 3

2390'

2090'

1890'

Young people 15-20 yrs.

Free

2000

2080 1

2340 '

2490'

2840'

2490'

2290'

Long-term and night

labourer

Free

2000

2080'

2290 *

2590'

2890'

2590'

2390'

Heavy Worker

Free

3000

3080 1

3090'

3540'

3090'

2790'

Very Heavy Worker

Free

4000

4080 '

4090'

4690'

4090'

3690'

Cereals s (<>)

Normal Consumer

155

220

275

320

150

Children 0-4 years

405

330

395

440

285

275

Children 5-14 years

155

220

275

320

150

Young people 15-20 yrs.
Heavy Worker

60
60

30
30

155
155

220
220

275
275

320
320

150
150

Very Heavy Worker

155

220

275

320

150

Potatoes

Normal Consumer

Free

1500

3000

3500

Children 0-4 years

Free

750

1500

1750

Children 5-14 years

Free

1500

3000

3500

Young people 15-20 yrs.

Free

1500

3000

5250

Long-term and night

labourer

Free

1500

3000

3500

Heavy Worker

Free

2250

4500

5250

Very Heavy Worker

Free

3000

6000

7000

Sugar
All Consumers

335

275

335

325

250

300

250

Jam, Honey

All Consumers

Free

125

120

Meat, Meat Prod. ( d )

Normal Consumer

Free

500

440

350

225

265

300

Children 0-4 years

Free

300

205

130

125

135

150

Children 5-14 years

Free

500

440

350

225

265

300

Young people 15-20 yrs.

Free

500

440

350

225

265

300

Long-term and night

labourer

Free

500

480

450

340

365

400

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

Free
Free

700
1100

650
1060

500
855

355
590

400
660

450
750

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

Free

250

200

195

Children 0-4 years

Free

165

125

100

110

Children 5-14 years

Free

250

200

220

Young people 15-20 yrs.

Free

250

200

220

Long-term and night

labourer

Free

250

260

270

220

210

Heavy Worker

Free

350

375

300

290

Very Heavy Worker

Free

665

750

600

580

[143]

THE NETHERLANDS

1942

1943

1944

III

1890'

2190J

21903

2170<

21704

990'

8903

8704

&8704

1890'

21903

21704

2290'

25903

25704

2390 3

2390'

26903

26704

2790'

3090J

30903

30704

3690'

39903

39704

230

275

185

145

180

185

155

135

150

175

355

400

310

270

305

415 6

405 6

385 6

400*

430 6

230

275

185

145

180

185

155

135

150

175

230

275

185

145

180

185

155

135

150

175

230

275

185

145

180

185

155

135

150

175

230

275

185

145

180

185

155

135

150

175

3500

2500

3000

4000?

40007

2750

1750

1250

1500

2000

2500

2000

1500

3500

2500

3000

4000

2750

5250

3750

4500

6000

5500

6000

4000

3500

2500

3000

4500

4750

5000

3250

5250

3750

4500

6000

5500

6000

4000

7000

5000

6000

8000

7000

8000

5500

250

125

145

125

250

300

280

200

105

115

125

150

140

110

105

115

125

250

300

280

200

105

115

125

250

300

280

200

105

115

125

350

400

380

300

190

200

225

375

450

420

320

260

270

300

625

750

700

530

425

455

500

210

190

145

150

160

125

145

140

125

120

110

105

145

130

110

115

240

220

175

180

140

190

220

205

175

240

220

175

180

140

190

220

205

175

240

190

175

180

190

150

175

170

155

320

285

220

225

230

185

220

210

185

640

570

440

445

450

370

440

420

375

Footnotes: See following page.

[144]

THE NETHERLANDS (Continued)

Consumer Category

1940

1941

III

Liquid Milk

Normal Consumer

Free

1750

Children 0-4 years

Free

7000

Children 5- 14 years

Free

3500

Young people 15-20 yrs.

Free

1750

Cheese

All Consumers

Free

110

100

105

Eggs

All Consumers

Free

I.r.

Coffee (0

Adult Consumers

Free

Including 60 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
1 Including 65 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

Including 70 grammes of flour in terms of bread and 300 grammes of biscuit.
Including 70 grammes of flour in terms of bread and 280 grammes of biscuit.

Including groats, rice, vermic, pulse, and oatmeal. During the last quarter of 1039 a pulse ration of 125 grammes
per week was given to all consumers.

[145]

THE NETHERLANDS (Continue

1942

1943

1944

III

7000
3500'

7000
35009

1750
7000
3500
1750 8

1750 8
5250
35009
1750 8

1400 8
5250
26259
1400 8

1500 8
5250
30009
1500 8

1750 8
5250
35009
1750 8

1750
5250
35009
1750 8

1500 8
5250
30009
1500 8

1750 8
5250
35009
1750 8

125

100

l.r.

< For this period rations available only for infants 2-3 years of age; others received same rations as 5-14 years.

' Extra 1000 grammes for lowest income group.

8 Skimmed milk.

Nursing and expectant mothers received the same rations.

[146]

NORWAY

1941

1942

Consumer Category

III

Bread (*>)

Normal Consumer

2080

1820

Children 0-2 years

2080

1820

910

Children 2-5 years

2080

1820

910

1140

Young people 12-19 yrs.

Boys

2080

2050

Girls

2080

1820

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

2990
3900

2960
3870

Potatoes

Normal Consumer

Free

3000

Heavy Worker

Free

4500

Very Heavy Worker

Free

5250

Sugar

All Consumers

200

Meat, Meat Prod. ()

Normal Consumer

Heavy Worker with 2 or

more additional cards

for bread

300

Fats, Butter, etc. ()

Normal Consumer

315

280

210

Heavy Worker

315

280

245

Very Heavy Worker

315

Liquid Milk 1

Normal Consumer

Free

1750'

Children 0-5 years

Free

5250

Children, Adolescents

(6-18 years)

Free

3500

Cheese

All Consumers

Eggs
All Consumers

Coffee (0

Normal Consumer (12

years or more)

504

404

Chocolate

Children 0-11 years*

110

1 Up to the second quarter of 1945, normal consumers got their rations In skimmed milk and
years old half rations In skimmed milk.
Maximum rations. The real rations were lower.

adolescents 16-18

[147]

NORWAY

1943

1944

1945

III

1820
910
1140

2275
1365
2275

2050
1820
2960
3870

2505

2275
3185
4325

2505

2275
3185
4325

2505
2275
3185
4325

2505
2775
3185
4325

2960
2730
3640
4780

3000
4500
5250

3000
4500
6000

3000
4500
5250

200

300

210

245
315

210
245
315

210

245
315

210
245
315

210

245
315

210

245
315

210

245
315

210
245
315

210

245
315

350

385
r -455

1750'
5250

1750*
5250

1750'
5250

1750*

5250

1750'
5250

3500

404

40<

40 4

40*

40 4

40*

404

40<

404

20 grammes substitute.
40 grammes substitute.

i Until February 28, 1941 only to children 2-11 years. From March i, 1942 to March 31, 1942 also to children 12
and 13 years old.

[148]

POLAND I: GOVERNMENT GENERAL

Consumer Category

1941

1942

III

Bread and Flour ( b )

Normal Consumer

1570-'

1400-

1400

2100

1920

1750

Children 6-14 years

830-'

830-

700-

1050

1180

1050

Heavy Worker

2075M

2075'.i

2075 .J

2075

20853

2085'

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer

904

125

Children 0-14 years

904

125

70-

120

Privileged Consumer
Heavy Worker

r.
r.

Potatoes

Normal Consumer

1250

7500

2500

2225

5000

Children 0-14 years

1250

7500

1250

2225

2500

Privileged Consumer

Heavy Worker

5250

Sugar
Normal Consumer

100

250

100

250

225

Children 0-14 years

100

250

200

100

125

100

70-

Heavy Worker

125

Jam, Honey

Normal Consumer

115

Children 0-14 years

115

Heavy Worker

Meat, Meat Prod. (<*)

Normal Consumer

100

130

125

100

Children 0-14 years

100

130

Privileged Consumer

Heavy Worker

250

Fata ()

Normal Consumer

100

Privileged Consumer

Heavy Worker

125

Milk

Children 0-6 years

3500

1750

3500

Children 6-14 years

1400

1750

Cheese

All Consumers

Eggs
Normal Consumer

Children 0-14 years

Coffee (0

Normal Consumer

Children 0-14 years
Heavy Worker

100

40
100

100

40
100

30-55
100

1 Including 100 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

In addition, aoo grammes of epedal foods.

Including 350 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

[ 149 ]

POLAND I: GOVERNMENT GENERAL

Consumer Category

1943

1944

Ill

III

Bread and Flour (*>)

Normal Consumer

2095

2250

2100

Children 0-1 4 years

1045

1125

1050

Heavy Worker

2655-

2850

2660-

Cereals ()

3395

3410

Normal Consumer
Children 0-14 years

r.
r.

45s
70 J

Privileged Consumer
Heavy Worker

r.
r.

45s
105*

125
125

110
110

Potatoes

Normal Consumer
Children 0-14 years
Privileged Consumer

r.
r.
r.

1925
1925
5770-

2000
2000
4000

2000
2000
6000

Heavy Worker

2885
5770

4000

6000

Sugar
Normal Consumer
Children 0-14 years

r.
r.

70
70

75
75

Heavy Worker

100-

105-

Jam, Honey

130

135

Normal Consumer
Children 0-14 years
Heavy Worker

r.
r.
r.

115
115
175

125
185

125
r.
185

125
185

Meat, Meat Prod. (<i)

Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 4 years
Privileged Consumer

r.
r.
r.

95
95
210-

100
100
225

100
100

225

Heavy Worker

190
280-

300-

375

400

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

f >

Privileged Consumer

115-

125

Heavy Worker

30
140-

150-

Milk

210

225

Children 0-6 years

Children 6-14 years

Cheese

All Consumers

Egga

Normal Consumer

Children 0-14 years

Coffee (0

Normal Consumer

f >

Children 0-14 years

Heavy Worker

* Yearly average. Distribution irregular during the year.
ProctMed foodstuffs.

[150]

POLAND II: WARTHELAND

Consumer Category

1941

Ill

Bread and Flour 0>)

Normal Consumer

2250

Children 0-6 years
Children 6-14 years

r.
r.

1100
r.

Heavy Worker

2075

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer

225

Children 0-6 years

Children 6-14 years

Potatoes

Normal Consumer

2500

Heavy Worker

5250

Sugar
Normal Consumer

250

Children 0-14 years

250

Heavy Worker

125

Jam, Honey

Normal Consumer

250

100

Children 0-1 4 years

Meat ()

Normal Consumer

200-250

250

150

Children 0-6 years

100

Children 6- 14 years

100

Heavy Worker

250

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

100

EIOO

Children 0-14 years

Heavy Worker

125

Milk

Children 0-6 years

3500

Children 6-14 years

1750

Cheese

All Consumers

[151]

POLAND II: WARTHELAND

1942

1943 1

III

2250
1100
2250
2085

2000
1100
2250
2085

2000
1100

2250
2085

2250
1100
2250
2085

2000
1050
1050
r.

2000
1050
1050
2660-2675

225
225
150

110
110
r.

110
110

110
125
r.

110
125

110
125
r.

2225
5270

2500
5270

2225
r.

2225
5300

250
225
125

225
225
125

225
125
r.

225
125
100-130

100

125

100
100

100
150

250
80
150
250

150
80
150
250

150
80
150

250

150
75
75
r.

150

75
75
280-375

110
80
125

80
80
125

80
80
r.

80
80
140-210

1750
r.

3500
1750

1750
r.

1 Average for 1943.

[152]
SERBIA

Consumer Category

1942*

1943

1944

I II III

I II III IV

Bread and Flour p>)
All Consumers

1800 2010"

2010'

1850 2240 2240 2000

2000 2000 2000 2000

Sugar
Normal Consumer
Children 0-3 years

150 75 150

150

150 150 110 125
230

125 125 75 75
250 250 250 250

Meat, Meat Prod. (<*)
All Consumers

400 200 125

125

125 125 125 125

100

Fats ()
All Consumers

230 230 230 230

1 Belgrade.

Including 125 grammes of flour in term* of bread.

SLOVAKIA

Consumer Category

1942

1943

I II III IV

Bread and Flour (*>)
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

1670 1670 1510' 1545'
325 325 325 325
2000 2000 1850 1855'
3320 3075 3000s 3100'

1545' 1545' 1505' 1505'
325 325 325
1855* 1805' 1805' 1805'
3100 6 3010 6 3010 6 3010*

Potatoes
All Consumers

3000 3000 3000 3000

Sugar
Normal Consumer

Children 0-6 years

250 250 190-7 175.7
250 230
375 375 210-7 300-7
375 355

175-7 175-7 175-7 175-7
230 230 230 230
300-7 300-7 300-7 300-7
350 355 355 355

Meat, Meat Prod. (<)
Normal Consumer
Heavy Worker

400 300 300 400
600 450 450 600

400 400 400 200
600 600 600 300

Fats ()
Normal Consumer
Children 0-14 years
Heavy Worker

60
120
120

60 60 60 60
125 125 125 125
120 120 120 120

Liquid Milk
Normal Consumer
Children 0-1 year
Children 1-14 years 1

700 700
5000 5000
3500 3500

700 700 700 700
5000 5000 5250 5250
3500 3500 3500 3500

Eggs (pieces)
All Consumers

33 2

' Including 460 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Including 350 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Including 475 grammes of flour in terms of bread.
Extra rations of rice, semolina, oatmeal and biscuits to children.

[153]

SLOVAKIA

Consumer Category

1944

1945

III

Bread and Flour 0>)

Normal Consumer

16703

1670J

1535'

1540'

Children 0-1 year

Heavy Worker

1970J

19703

1855'

1855*

1855'

Very Heavy Worker

3010*

3010 6

3080

3080 6

3080*

Potatoes

All Consumers

3000

2500

Sugar
Normal Consumer

175-'

230

Children 0-6 years

300- '

300-7

300-'

355

Meat, Meat Prod. (i)

Normal Consumer

200

Heavy Worker

300

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

Children 0-14 years

125

Heavy W r orker

120

Liquid Milk

Normal Consumer

700

Children 0-1 year

5250

4900

Children 1-14 years 1

3500

Eggs (pieces)

All Consumers

Including 690 grammes of flour in terms of bread.

* Including 700 grammes of flour In terms of bread.

* Urban and rural areas respectively.

* Also musing and expectant mothers.

[154]

SWEDEN

Consumer Category

1940

1941

III

Bread and Flour 0>)

Normal Consumer

Free

1885

1845

1780

1625

Children 0-3 years

Free

1885

1845

1780

1625

1355

Children 4-6 years

Free

1885

1845

1780

1625

Persons 7-20 years

Free

2200

2155

2075

1895

1830

Heavy Worker

Free

2200

2155

2075

1895

2440

Very Heavy Worker

Free

3135

3075

2960

2710

4265

Cereals ()

All Consumers

Free

125'

230

Sugar
Normal Consumer

Free

590

840

460

455

460

640

585

Persons 0-20 years

Free

590

840

460

455

460

640

585

Heavy Worker

Free

590

840

460

600

610

785

710

Jam, Honey

All Consumers

Free

Meat, Meat Prod. (<)

Normal Consumer

Free

2003

230

480

395

445

Children 0-3 years

Free

410

230

215

Children 4-6 years

Free

135

110

410

395

445

Persons 7-20 years

Free

200

230

480

395

445

Heavy Worker

Free

290

335

560

530

585

Very Heavy Worker

Free

660

760

890

1055

1145

Fats ()

Normal Consumer

Free

265

270

265

255

Children 0-6 years

Free

265

270

265

255

Children 7-12 years

Free

335

330

335

315

Heavy Worker

Free

335

330

335

315

Very Heavy Worker

Free

400

395

410

375

Cheese

All Consumers

Free

55^

Free

Eggs
All Consumers

Free

Coffee (0

Adult Consumer

Free

100

Heavy Worker

Free

150

145

115

105

Oatmeal in this period included in the bread ration in exchange for bread or flour.

Rice in this period included in the bread ration in exchange for bread or flour.

1 Meat ration included pork only for the period October 6, 1940 March 31, 1941. Other meats free.
Mutton and goatmeat were unrationed February 21 October 18, 1944.

[155]

SWEDEN

1942

1943

1944

1945

I II III IV

I II III

1550 1515 1540 1550
1165 1140 1225 1165
1550 1515 1540 1550
1745 1705 1840 1940
2325 2275 1925 1940
4075 3980 3465 3875

1515 1530 1505 1615
1140 1150 1125 1215
1515 1530 1505 1615
1895 1915 1880 2020
1895 1915 1880 2020
3795 3830 3760 4045

1550 1615 1625 1625
1165 1210 1220 1220
1550 1615 1625 1625
1940 2020 2030 2030
1940 2020 2030 2030
3880 4040 4060 4060

1625 1560 1515
1220 1170 1140
1625 1560 1300
2030 1950 1895
2030 1950 1895
4060 3900 3790

50 50 30 105

240 240 235 225

230 230 220 140

190 135 95

425 445 700 605
425 445 700 605
565 590 *! 840 820

425 435 670 515
425 435 670 515
640 650 870 695

420 385 765 420
420 385 765 420
630 585 895 555

395 395 565
395 395 370
590 585 460

Free Free Free Free

Free Free Free

395 235 175 210
200 135 75 105
395 235 175 210
395 235 175 210
550 295 225 275
1180 545 405 480

210 435 440 405
100 240 240 190
210 435 440 405
210 435 440 405
275 575 620 520
475 995 1160 855

4004 7055 530* 330
210 370 325 170
400 705 530 330
400 705 530 330
495 835 680 435
785 1235 1120 740

285 300 340
165 115 175
285 300 340
285 300 340
400 385 435
755 645 1000

255 250 255 270
255 250 255 270
315 310 320 330
315 310 320 330

375 375 445 460

250 250 250 265
250 250 250 265
310 310 310 325
310 310 310 325
440 440 440 450

305 320 325 310
305 320 325 310
365 380 385 375
365 380 385 375
490 550 575 555

285 250 250
285 250 250
345 310 310
345 310 310
535 500 500

30 30 30 35

30 30 40 70

60 55 80 70

40 65 100*

75 85 80 40

45 100 45 35

100 140 95 45

130 120 135

25 15 20 35
55 25 30 45

25 20 25 60
50 40 40 80

50 55 65 75
70 70 85 90

65 45 75
80 55 85

Sausage and similar products unrationed. May 2 August 29, 1944.
Canned pork and meat unrationed, June 12 August 29. 1944.

Cheese unrationed, February i June 30, 1941.

Nursing and expectant mothers received 370 grammes sugar, 435 grammes cheese and 50 grammes coffee.

[156]

SWITZERLAND

1940

1941

Consumei Category

I II III IV

Bread and FlourCO
Normal Consumer Alternative A\

Free Free Free Free

" " " Bj
Children
Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

Free Free Free Free
?ree Free Free Free
Free Free Free Free

Free Free Free Free
Free Free Free me
Free Free Free Free

Cereals ()

Normal Consumer Alternative A}

620 385 175 175

330 235 115 115

" " " Bj
Children
Heavy Worker

r. r. r. 115

115 115 90 225

Very Heavy Worker

Sugar r
Normal Consumer
Children flgg

465 385 235 235
465 385 235 235

175 175 175 175
175 175 175 175

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

Free Free Free Free

Meat, Meat Products (<)

Normal Consumer Alternative A\

Children

Heavy Worker

Very Heavy Worker

Fats ()
Normal Consumer
Children

215 95 75 150

185 165 150 165

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

Liquid Milk

Normal Consumer Alternative A

Children

Heavy Worker
Very Heavy Worker

Cheese

Normal Consumer Alternative A

Children

Heavy Worker

Very Heavy Worker

Eggs (pieces)

Normal Consumer

Coffee (0

Af\ 1C

All Consumers

TtU JJ

Extra ration* of sugar for home preserving, occasionally.
Plus additional ration of powdered egg.

[157]

SWITZERLAND

1942

1943

1944

1945

II III

III

II III

Free

Free Free

1465

(1700
I r.

1715 1755
r. 2105

1755
2105

1710
2070

1855
2205

1875
2230

1700
2070

1525
1840

1395 1560
1605 1765

Free

Free Free

990

1290

1290 1290

1290

1075

1130

1045

815 1045

Free

Free Free

2975

2275

r. 2455

2455

2925

2795 2960

Free

Free Free

2975

r. 3155

3155

3625

3495 2960

195

200 150

165

135

170 115

215

410

360

270

215

/220
\220

280 225
280 225

310

385 355

370

280

320 330

320

490

440

1000

430 405
1060 280

140

140 115

115

115 115

115

1385
115

1445 280
115 115

175

175 175

175

175 175

175

175 175

Free

Free Free

60 60

155

25 25

610

460 210

390

400 580
r. 230

460
50

355
30

255
55

320
85

335
r.

265
r.

320 280
85 r.

180

140 95

115

115 180

140

120

110

115

95 95

820 410
r r.

550
550

r. r.

480

565

400

475

455 410
530 r.

200

225 220

195

185

140 105

130

145

135

115

145

150

115 210

140

155 135

135

130

115 115

125

160

145

140

145

115 140

275 275

230

r. r.

165

265

230 270

r. r.

230

r. r.

225-

225

325

290 330

l.r.

l.r. l.r.

2050

2840

1650 / 319
J65 \3955

2905
3650

2560
4140

2560
3025

2560 2560
3025 3025

l.r.

l.r. !,r.

3300

5000

5235 5745

5045

5000

4885

4885 4885

1 r

1 r 1 r

7000

7000 3725

3605

i* <

3260

3260 3200

l.r.

l.r. l.r.

r. r.

3605

3260

3260 3200

95 150

125

155 / 125
155 \ 185

90
60

175

65
115

60
90

60
100

75
125

80 165
115 185

45 70

35 65

40 45

225

225 225

115

r. 120

145

130 205

r. r.

r. 145

170

165 345

0.5'

l.r. 0.5'

0.5

1 1

0.5

5 1

5 0.5

r. 1

35 35

50 40

35M35

r. 40

[158]

THE UNITED KINGDOM

Consumer Category

1940

1941

III

Sugar 1
All Consumers

340

225

Jam, Honey
All Consumers

Free

115

Meat, Meat Prod.'O 1 )
Normal Consumer
Children under 6 years

1/10
/H

2/2
1/1

1/2

1/0
/6

1/2
/7

1/2

Bacon and Ham
All Consumers

115

225

115

Fats ()
All Consumers

115

225

Liquid Milk'
Normal Consumer

Free

Children under 6 years
Children 6-17 years

Free
Free

Cheese
Normal Consumer

Free

Eggs
All Consumers <

Tea

All Consumers

Free

1 From November 1943 to April 1945, sugar and preserves rations often exchangeable at about one pound of sugar
for one pound of preserves.

Meat and meat products, except for bacon and ham, are rationed on a value basis. Expressed in terms of shillings
and pence.

[159]

THE UNITED KINGDOM

1942

1943

1944

1945

I II III IV

I II III

225 225 225 225

225 225 225

115 115 115 115

115 225 115 115

115 115 115

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

n n n n

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

n n n n

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

n n n n

1/2 1/2 1/2

n n n

115 115 115 115

115 115 170 115

115 115 85

225 225 225 225

225 225 225

Free 1420 1135-1135-
2270 2270
Free 3980 3980 3980
Free 1990 1990 1990

1135-1135-1135-1135-
2270 2270 2270 2270
3980 3980 3980 3980
1990 1990 1990 1990

1135- 1135- 1135- 1135-
2270 2270 2270 2270
3980 3980 3980 3980
1990 1990 1990 1990

1135- 1135- 1135-
2270 2270 2270
3980 3980 3980
1990 1990 1990

85 85 115 115

225 115 155 155

85 85 85 55

85 85 85

55 55 55 55

55 55 55

For-non priority consumers, the quantity of the ration varies according to the supply situation in various seasons
of the year.

Shell eggs primarily reserved for expectant mothers and children; however, allocations are made from time to time,
providing one egg per ordinary consumer. In 1942 there were 29 and in 1943 and 1944 there were 30 allocations.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE ECONOMIC, FINANCIAL
AND TRANSIT DEPARTMENT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

POST-WAR PROBLEMS
RECONSTRUCTION AND RELIEF

THE TRANSITION FROM WAR TO PEACE ECONOMY. Report of the Dele-
gation on Economic Depressions, Part I (Third Impression)
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1943.II.A.3) 118 pages cloth bound 6/- $1.50

paper bound 4/6 $1.00

P'CONOMIC STABILITY IN THE POST-WAR WORLD. Report of the Dele-
gation on Economic Depressions, Part II (Third Impression)
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1945.II.A.2) 341 pages . . cloth bound 12/6 $3.00

paper bound 10/- $2.50

RELIEF DELIVERIES AND RELIEF LOANS, 1919-1923 (Second Impres-
sion)

(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1943.II.A.1) 62 pages . paper bound 3/6 $1.00

EUROPE'S OVERSEAS NEEDS, 1919-1920, AND How THEY WERE MET
(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1943II.A.6) 52 pages paper bound 2/6 $0.50

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE DURING THE
1914-18 WAR AND THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD

(Ser. L o.N.P. 1943.II.A.7) 122 pages cloth bound 10/- $2.25

paper bound 7/6 $1.75

INTERNATIONAL CURRENCY EXPERIENCE (Second Impression)

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1944.II.A.4) 249 pages . cloth bound 15/- $3.25

paper bound 12/6 $2.75

URBAN AND RURAL HOUSING (Third Impression)

(Ser. L.o.N P. 1939 .II .A .2) xxxvi -f 159 pages paper bound 3/6 SO 80

In the Press:

THE COURSE AND CONTROL OF INFLATION, A REVIEW OF MONETARY
EXPERIENCE IN EUROPE AFTER WORLD WAR I

(Ser L.o.N.P. 1946.TI.A6)

TRADE AND COMMERCIAL POLICY

THE NETWORK OF WORLD TRADE (Second Impression)

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1942II.A.3) 172 pages . . cloth bound 12/6 $2.75

paper bound 10/- $2.00

EUROPE'S TRADE (Second Impression)

(Ser. LO.N.P. 1941.II.A.1) 116 pages cloth bound 7/6 $2.00

paper bound 5/- $155

COMMERCIAL POLICY IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD: INTERNATIONAL PRO-
POSALS AND NATIONAL POLICIES (Third Impression)
(Ser. L.o.N .P. 1942.11 A 6) 164 pages . paper bound 7/6 $1.75

[161]

COMMERCIAL POLICY IN THE POST-WAR WORLD

(Ser. L.O.NJP. 1945.II.A.7) 124 pages . . . paper bound 6/- $1.25

QUANTITATIVE TRADE CONTROLS: THEIR CAUSES AND NATURE. By
Prof. G. Haberler and W. M. Hill
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1943.II.A.5) 45 pages paper bound 2/6 $0.50

TRADE RELATIONS BETWEEN FREE-MARKET AND CONTROLLED ECON-
OMIES. By Prof. J. Viner (Second Impression)
(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1943.II.A.4) 92 pages . . paper bound 4/6 $1.00

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FOREIGN TRADE

(Ser. L.o.NP. 1945.II.A.10) 167 pages . . cloth bound 8/6 $2.15

paper bound 7/6 $1.75

CONDITIONS OF PRIVATE FOREIGN INVESTMENT

(Ser. L.o.NP. 1946.II.A.1) 45 pages . paper bound 2/- $0.50

RAW-MATERIAL PROBLEMS AND POLICIES

(Ser. L.o.NP. 1946II.A.2) 110 pages paper bound 4/- $1.00

ECONOMIC SECURITY

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED
KINGDOM, 1918-22 (Second Impression)
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1942.II.A.7) 93 pages paper bound 6/- $1.50

PROSPERITY AND DEPRESSION. A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF CYCLICAL
MOVEMENTS. By Prof. G. Haberler. (Third Edition Revised and
Enlarged 1941) (Fifth Impression)
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1943.II.A.2) xxiv -f 532 pages cloth bound 12/6 $2.50

DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS

THE FUTURE POPULATION OF EUROPE AND THE SOVIET UNION : POPU-
LATION PROJECTIONS, 1940-70. By Dr. Frank W. Notestein and
others of the Office of Population Research, Princeton University

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1944.II.A.2) 315 pages cloth bound 15/- $350

paper bound 12/6 $2.75

ECONOMIC DEMOGRAPHY OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. By Dr.
Wilbert E. Moore, Office of Population Research, Princeton Uni-
versity

(Ser. Lo.N.P. 1945.II.A.9) 299 pages cloth bound 12/6 $3.00

paper bound 10/- $2.50

THE POPULATION OF THE SOVIET UNION. By Dr. Frank Lorimer,
Office of Population Research, Princeton University
(Ser. Lo.N.P. 1946.1I.A.3) about 386 pages cloth bound 17/6 $4.00

paper bound 15/- $3.50

TAXATION

MODEL BILATERAL CONVENTIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF INTER-
NATIONAL DOUBLE TAXATION AND FISCAL EVASION: SECOND RE-
GIONAL TAX CONFERENCE, Mexico, D.F., July 1943
(Ser. L.o.NP. 1945.II.A.3) 85 pages paper bound 3/6 $1 00

[162]

CURRENT EVENTS
WORLD ECONOMIC SURVEY, 1939/41

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1941.II.A.2) 275 pages . cloth bound 10/- $2.60

paper bound 7/6 $2.00

WORLD ECONOMIC SURVEY, 1941/42 (Tenth Year) (Second Impres-
sion)

(Scr. L.o.NJP. 1942.II.A.5) 198 pages . . cloth bound 12/6 $3.00

paper bound 10/- $2.50

WORLD ECONOMIC SURVEY, 1942/44 (Thirteenth Year)

(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1945.II.A.4) 299 pages . cloth bound 12/6 $300

paper bound 10/- $2.50

WARTIME RATIONING AND CONSUMPTION (Second Impression)

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1942.II.A.2) 87 pages paper bound 3/6 $1 00

FOOD RATIONING AND SUPPLY, 1943/44

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1944.II.A.3) 101 pages paper bound 4/6 $1.00

STATISTICS

RAW MATERIALS AND FOODSTUFFS: PRODUCTION BY COUNTRIES, 1935
AND 1938 (Second Impression)
(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1939.II.A.24) 75 pages paper bound 2/6 $0.60

MONEY AND BANKING, 1940/42

(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1942.II.A.1) 202 pages cloth bound 15/- $3.00

paper bound 12/6 $2 50

MONEY AND BANKING, 1942/44

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1945.II.A.1) 221 pages cloth bound 15/- $3.00

paper bound 12/6 $2 50

STATISTICAL YEAR-BOOK OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1940/41

(Ser. L.O.N.P. 1941.II.A.3) 271 pages doth bound 12/6 $350

paper bound 10/- $2.50

STATISTICAL YEAR-BOOK OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1941/42. In-
cluding Addendum 1942/43
(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1942.11 A 8) 279 pages, plus 80 pages of Addendum

cloth bound 12/6 $3 50
paper bound 10/- $2 50

STATISTICAL YEAR-BOOK OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1942/44 (Sev-
enteenth Year)

(Ser. L.o.N.P. 1945 II.A 5) 315 pages cloth bound 12/6 83 50

paper bound 10/- $2 50

MONTHLY BULLETIN OF STATISTICS

Annual subscription (12 numbers) 1.00 $5.00

single number 1/9 $045

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